eChapters

Introduction
Helminths are a group of internal parasites of animals and human beings that usually infest gastrointestinal tract that feed from the host which provides protection to the parasite. The infestation cause loss of blood and nutrients from the host, making it weak, and vulnerable to other infections. There can be injury to other organs due to the migration of different stages of the parasite, formation of cysts or secretion of toxins that can cause damage.
The heminths belong to two phyla including nemathelminthes which are round worms and Platyhelminthes that has flukes, and tapeworms. Nematodes are round worms who have a resistant cuticle and most of them have separate sexes with direct or indirect life cycle. The major nematodes include Ascarids, Strongyles, strongyloides, Trichostrongyles, Filarids, Trichuris etc. Tape worms have a flat body with a head or scolex, neck and strobili having proglottids. They are hermaphrodites and the proglottids contain reproductive organs. They require more than one host for completion of life cycle. The flukes are ususally leaf like , unsegmented and have suckers that help them to attach to the internal organs of the host. They also have a life cycle in more than one host.

Viral Diseases in Domestic Animals
Viral diseases significantly impact the health and productivity of domestic animals, including livestock and companion animals, leading to substantial economic and emotional costs. In livestock, diseases like Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) and Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) cause severe production losses in terms of milk, meat, and wool. Similarly, in poultry, Newcastle disease and Avian Influenza outbreaks result in high mortality and disruptions to egg production. Among companion animals, viruses such as Canine Distemper and Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) lead to serious morbidity and reduced quality of life. Current control measures rely heavily on vaccination and biosecurity practices, but the lack of effective antiviral treatments, coupled with the emergence of drug-resistant strains, underscores the need
for novel therapeutic approaches. Medicinal plants with antiviral properties have garnered significant interest as sustainable and holistic solutions. Plantderived bioactive compounds offer a dual advantage of modulating immune responses and directly targeting viral pathogens, making them a promising area of research for the management of viral diseases in both livestock and pet animals.

Herbal galactagogues are medicinal plants used to stimulate, sustain, and boost milk production. Several plants known for their galactagogue activity are being used traditionally in many cultures to stimulate milk production in animals. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding the safety and efficacy of these medicinal plants. Moreover, the mechanism of action of the herbal constituents present in these plants is not yet elucidated. Although, many herbal galactagogues have been reported as safe in domestic animals and can be used as food supplements in the dairy industry. Nowadays, the use of plantderived supplements has increased in the dairy sector promoting a new trend of organic dairy farming. Traditional remedies being used for increasing milk production in animals often incorporate herbal treatments, mainly comprising
of the following important herbs [1-8]:

Introduction
Arthritis, a condition characterized by inflammation of the joints, is prevalent among livestock species, particularly in older animals or those subjected to intensive farming conditions. It results in pain, reduced mobility, and diminished productivity. Herbal plants with anti-inflammatory and analgesic qualities are being investigated as a result of the increased interest in natural therapies, even if treatments like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids have been utilized to manage arthritis in livestock. This chapter addresses the use of herbal plants to treat arthritis in cattle, including
a summary of the best plant-based remedies, their modes of action, and the scientific data that backs them up.
Pathophysiology of Arthritis in Livestock
Arthritis in livestock is primarily caused by joint degeneration, trauma, infection, or autoimmune disorders. The inflammation of the synovial membrane leads to the discharge of cytokines that cause inflammation, which degrade cartilage and cause pain. The condition significantly impacts the animal’s ability to move, affecting their overall well-being and productivity. In farmed animals, arthritis can lead to decreased milk production, reduced growth rates, and compromised meat quality, thus representing a significant economic loss.

Cardiovascular System Disorders in Domestic Animals
Cardiovascular system disorders in domestic animals include a range ofM conditions that affect the heart (pericardium, myocardium, endocardium), veins, arteries and lymphatic vessels. Infectious disorders like Heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis, vegetative endocarditis in pigs, equine viral arteritis). Patency of the foramen ovale, interventricular foramena, patent ductus arteriosus, persistence of the right aortic arch, coarctation of the aorta, transposition of the aorta, congenital aneurysm, pulmonic stenosis, subaortic stenosis, ectopia cardis, acardia, and diplocardia are examples of congenital and developmental disorders that can result in these conditions. Traumatic disorders like Traumatic reticulopericarditis and cardiac failure. Degenerative diseases like fatty and hyaline degeneration. Inflammatory disorders like pericarditis,
myocarditis, endocarditis and phlebitis may also lead to cardiovascular system disorders. Some tumours associated with the cardiovascular system like rhabdomyosarcoma, fibroma and myxofibroma also cause cardiovascular system disorders.

Nervous system Disorders in Domestic Animals
Nervous system disorders in domestic animals encompass a range of conditions that affect the brain, peripheral nerves, and spinal cord. These disorders can result in a variety of clinical signs, depending on the area of the nervous system involved. Infectious disorders like rabies, canine distemper, toxoplasmosis, listeriosis. Congenital and developmental disorders like hydrocephalus, cerebellar hypoplasia and chiari-like malformation can cause these disorders. Traumatic and degenerative disorders like Intervertebral Disc Disease. Degenerative myelopathy, metabolic and toxic disorders like hepatic encephalopathy, hypocalcemia, lead poisoning, organophosphate toxicity, autoimmune and inflammatory disorders like meningitis and meningoencephalitis may also lead to nervous system disorders. Some tumours associated with nervous system like meningiomas and peripheral nerve sheathtumours also cause nervous system disorders.  

Introduction
Diabetes mellitus is a disease the related to metabolism of the body and malfunctioning of pancreas. Pancreas having alpha and beta cells where alpha cells produce enzymes needed for the digestion and beta cells mainly produce insulin. One important component that regulates blood glucose (sugar) levels and how it is delivered to the body’s cells is Insulin. The body’s cells run out of their primary energy source when insulin levels are low. Insulin voices the body’s cells to engross glucose from the bloodstream. Without an satisfactory amount of insulin glucose cannot invade the cells and so it accrues in the blood, triggering hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). In retort to this ostensible starvation, the body starts flouting down supplies of protein & fat for energy, producing weight loss contempt a ravening appetite. The body efforts to remove the extra glucose by micturating. To avoid thirst, the dog drinks more and more water. Type I increased diabetes mellitus outcomes from completeobliterat ion of the insulin-creating beta cells. In dogs, this is the most prevalent kind of diabetes. As the name implies, insulin injections are necessary to balance blood sugar in dogs with this kind of diabetes.

Medicinal Plants for Arsenic Toxicity
Name of the Condition- Nephrotoxicity
About the condition/Definition- Intoxication of arsenic (arsenite or arsenate) result in renal impairment which is marked by a significant increase in the levels of creatinine, urea, uric acid and decline in levels of plasma protein profile especially albumin level in body.
Etiology- Nephrotoxicity results from arsenic damages mitochondria, which results in the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a decline in ATP, and a suppression of respiratory activities along with dramatic alterations in the incidence of cellular growth. There is acute inflammation and the development of tubular necrosis, which lowers the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Symptoms- Phosphaturia (Fanconi syndrome), aminoaciduria, proteinuria and glycosuria along with progressive drop of renal function.
Pathogenesis- Arsenic produces renal damage by reducing mitochondrial complex function and elevating cellular ROS levels which directly damages renal cells. Membrane lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation by ROS, which results in complete loss of membrane potential and mitochondrial swelling.
General treatment- Acute arsenic intoxication can be counter by using chelating agents like DMSA, DMPS and BAL, fluid therapy, forced dieresis & dialysis.

Introduction
The use of medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases is a practice that spans centuries. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in using herbal remedies for treating fungal infections in livestock and animals. Fungal infections, caused by pathogenic fungi such as Aspergillus, Candida, Dermatophytes, and Mucor, can lead to significant health issues in animals, affecting both domestic and wild species. These infections often manifest as skin diseases, respiratory illnesses, gastrointestinal problems, and systemic infections, and can even lead to death if left untreated. While antifungal drugs are commonly used to manage these infections, concerns about drug resistance, toxicity, and sustainability have encouraged the exploration of alternative therapeutic options, particularly herbal medicine.
This chapter explores the potential of medicinal plants used as antifungal agents in livestock and animals, highlighting their efficacy, safety, and practical applications.

Our digestive structure is not only just a food handle centre. It’s a foundation of fitness, moving everything from our immunity to mental well-being. A fit gut aids in the digesting and assimilation of nutrients supports a healthy and strong immunity, and helps in the effective elimination of waste. Asserting good gut fitness is critical because it can influence our whole body’s health, prevent chronic afflictions, and develop value of growth. Plants have been second-hand for curative purposes for thousands of years, and many up-todate cures are still coming from plant compounds. In this chapter, we will
study some commonly used medicinal plants used to treat common digestive system diseases, along with associated ethnomedicinal details.
1. Diarrohea
About the condition/Definition- Loose, watery and possibly more-frequent passage of stool is called diarrohea. Feeling of urgent need of frequent bowel movement in a day.
Etiology- A few causes include infections, diseases, and food intolerances. Rotavirus, norovirus, viral gastroenteritis; salmonella, E. coli; giardiasis, amoebiasis and food intolerance are few important causes of diarrohea.
Symptoms- The symptoms include a strong desire to have bowel movement and frequent loose, watery feces. Occasionally linked to cramps, bloating, thirst, nausea, and abdominal pain

Introduction:The phenomenon of reproduction is an important aspect, which needs special attention in livestock farming to achieve optimum productivity and increase the economic status of the farmers. Variousgynaecological problems like anestrus, repeat breeding, endometritis,  retention of placenta, etc reduce thereproductive performance in farm animals. Besides indirect reducing the milk yield, it also creates financial burden on the farmers due to high cost of therapeutic drugs prescribed for their treatment. The use of various hormonal preparations and antibiotics has been critical in treating these disorders inthe farm animals. However, herbal treatments render a holistic approach to manage the reproductive problems with minimalcost and no side effects.
1. Name of the condition: Anestrous
About the condition/definition: Anestrus is a reproductive cycle dysfunction in which an animal does not display the obvious symptoms of estrus. It is one of the major limiting factor in achieving better reproductive
performance in farm animals.
Etiology and pathogenesis: Expression of estrus is controlled by secretion of reproductive hormones. Any disturbance in their secretion due to the effect of either ofSeason, stress, uterine diseases, poor management techniques, inadequate nourishment, etc., delays the process.The animals with smooth non-functional ovary are said to true anestrous, whereas absence of estrus due to retained CL on ovary due to uterine pathology are false anestrous.

The kidney plays a role in controlling the volume of different bodily fluids, fluid osmolality, acid-base balance, toxin elimination, and different electrolyte concentrations. The glomerulus filters one-fifth of the volume of blood that enters the kidneys. Among the compounds that are reabsorbed include amino acids, salt, bicarbonate, glucose, and solute-free water. Among the chemicals that are released are ammonium, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. The kidneys maintain homeostasis, eliminate metabolic waste products like uric acid, urea, creatinine and ammonia, regulate extracellular fluid volume, blood pressure (via the rennin-angiotensin system) and controlling systemic pH (via regulation of H+ and HCO3- concentration).
Among various kidney diseases, especially chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a slow loss of kidney function in which, kidney dysfunction is present for more than three months. There are six progressive stages of CKD i.e. stages 1, 2, 3a, 3b, 4 and 5. The stages are based on the results of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) test (1). In stage 1 there is mild kidney damage, while in stage 5 kidneys lost their working capacity. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide health issue that is becoming more prevalent in both developed and developing nations. It typically affects adults. .

Respiratory tract disorders in domestic animals
The respiratory system is vital for efficient oxygen exchange, metabolic function, and overall health. Respiratory tract disorders in livestock speciesare among the most significant health challenges, leading to  economic losses in terms of reduced productivity, treatment costs, and mortality. Thesedisorders can affect the upper respiratory tract (URT), lower respiratory tract  (LRT), or both. Overview of common respiratory diseases in livestock, their aetiology, clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, diagnostic approaches, and management strategies are summarized as follows: -
1. Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC)
? Species affected: Cattle
? Etiology: Multifactorial; involves viruses (Bovine herpesvirus-1, Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Parainfluenza-3, Bovine viral diarrhea virus), bacteria (Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma bovis), and environmental stressors

Introduction
Serving as the primary biological barrier, the skin aids in immunological responses and provides protection against environmental pollutants and microorganisms, dehydration, and mechanical harm. The skin’s epidermis is made up of stratified and multilayered epithelial cells that, via a strictly controlled balance between terminal differentiation and cell proliferation, undergo lifelong self-renewal. One of the main causes of a wide range of skin conditions is the upset of this equilibrium.
Mycoses in humans and animals are prevalent worldwide. These diseases can arise as a result of a number of physiological and environmental factors, such as the effectiveness of the immune system of the recipient and the amount of fungi in the environment. Companion animal dermatoses rank among the most common reasons for clinic visits in day-to-day veterinary practice.

Tumour in Domestic Animals
Tumours in domestic animals, much like in humans, can occur in various tissues and organs. These can range from benign growths (non-cancerous) to malignant tumors or cancerous. Their causes, types, diagnosis, and treatments depend on the animal species, breed, age, and environmental factors. Common tumours in dogs are mammary tumours, skin tumours, lymphoma, osteosarcoma and hemangiosarcoma. In cats lymphoma, squamous cell carcinoma, mammary tumors and fibrosarcomas are reported. In cattle, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphosarcoma and papilloma are common. In horses, sarcoids, melanomas and squamous cell carcinoma are common. In small ruminants (sheep and goats) lymphoma and skin tumours are reported. In pigs, lymphoma and melanomas are commonly reported. Diagnosis of cancers are done by physical examination, cytology, biopsy, imaging: X-rays, ultrasound, CT, MRI and blood Tests.

Wound in Domestic Animals
A wound is defined as a break in the continuity of the skin, mucous membrane, or tissue surface that can result from physical, chemical, or biological agents. India has a diverse variety of livestock breeds, extensive countryside with vast grazing lands, and widespread use of livestock. The significant population of stray animals, including dogs, cats, and cattle, as well as the increase in pet ownership, make wounds in animals a commonly encountered condition. Wounds in animals can be a frustrating issue for both pets and productive animals, and this can also be a challenge for their owners. For instance, bleeding at the wound site from sudden cuts and bites can cause panic and distress among animal owners. Wounds can become complicated, as animals may lick, scratch, or otherwise irritate them, leading to infections, especially when they are soiled. Additionally, fly infestation and maggots, common in various temperate regions of India, further complicate the wound healing process. An unattended wound can quickly escalate to a severe microbial infection, which may lead to septicemia, maggot infestation, and can even become fatal for the animal. The cost of treating wounds in production animals, including expenses for antibiotics, can impose an economic burden on farmers. Common causes of wounds in domestic animals include penetrating injuries from horns, stamping injuries caused by mothers or other adult animals in tightly packed barns, tightened nose ropes, barbed wire injuries at the brisket region (in horses and cattle), and wet sores on the inner surfaces of the shoulder and groin in cattle due to friction and lack of air and sunlight exposure.

Introduction

The incidence of diabetes mellitus is increasing all over the world and is becoming a problem of significant importance. Diabetes mellitus is a disease of CHO metabolism and WHO has declared India as the diabetic capital of the world. Globally diabetes affects 246 million people, which is about 6% of the total adult population. It is the fourth leading cause of death by disease and every 10 seconds, a person dies from diabetes related causes in the world.

The growing number of diabetic patients and the current and probable future need for health care constraints will mean that high quality diabetic care will become increasingly difficult to be delivered in the future. This requires identification & implementation of cost effective treatment measures that will improve diabetes care in the long term, decrease the associated morbidity and reduce the high direct and indirect costs of its management. This can be possible by incorporation of cost effective and efficient medicinal plants in the management of diabetes. Toxicity and side effects of modern system of medicine have highlighted the importance and relevance of traditional medicinal plants. India has about 45,000 plant species and several thousands have been claimed to possess medicinal properties. Among Indian traditional medicinal plants several potential anti-diabetic plants and herbs are being used as part of our diet since prehistoric time.

In India, medicinal plants have been used as natural medicine since the days of Vedic glory. Historically, in ‘Atharva-Veda’ (about 200 B.C.) description of medicinal plants was made under a separate chapter ‘Ayurveda’. The medicinal values of plants have been tested by trial and error method for a long time by different workers and opened great opportunities for scientific investigations of herbal medicines for cure of diabetes and its complications.

Medicinal plants used to treat hyperglycemic conditions are of considerable interest for ethno-botanical community as they are recognized to contain valuable medicinal properties in different parts of the plant and a number of plants have shown varying degree of hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic activity. The active principles of many plant species are isolated for direct use as drugs, lead compounds or pharmacological agents. Traditional plant medicines or herbal formulations might offer a natural key to unlock diabetic complications if utilized with care.

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, the rural communities of Trivandrum have been preserving small tracts of virgin forests or small groves since time immemorial due to strong religious beliefs anointed with the groves. These forest patches are biodiversity rich communities and a large number of medicinal plants of the region are confined to these groves only. The indigenous people use the plants for medicinal as well as religious purposes. Over the years, such forests have been attributed as a treasure trove of threatened species and dispensary of medicinal plants. During the investigation, 132 medicinal plants belonging to 63 families and 119 genera were recorded from 25 miniature sacred forests of Trivandrum district. This study was based on medicinal plants used in traditional health care by local and indigenous people. About 80% local people use different parts of plants for various ailments. The present finding revealed that most of the plants are used for skin diseases, cold, cough and fever, etc. Leaves are predominantly used than the other plant parts. Important families within the groves were Apocynaceae, Papilionaceae, Urticaceae, Combretaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Presence of a large number of monospecific families indicates immediate need of a conservation measure to secure sustainable utilization of medicinal plants of sacred groves of Trivandrum district.

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

Description of important medicinal plants

India is known to be rich source of medicinal plants since ancient time. Medicinal plants like Aloe vera, Aswagandha, basil, mint, cinnamon, etc. are widely used to cure various ailments and for several health benefits. Some of the common diseases like common cold, headache, stomach problem, skin disease, etc. are treated in home by use of various herbs. Medicinal plants can be grown in the backyard or on the rooftop to meet the household demand. Cultivation practices of some of the medicinal plants are described in this chapter.

Tulsi

Tulsi or basil is considered to be a sacred plant with religious importance. It is grown in homes as an aromatic perennial shrub and used for medicinal purpose. Tulsi possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties with capacity to purify the air. It can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level. This plant can be grown in pots and in home gardens. The leaves and twigs of the plant are used for medicinal purpose. The fragrant leaves and flowers are used in the form of tincture, tea or decoction for curing cold & cough, stomach disorders, skin diseases, etc. The plant is also rich in antioxidant, vitamin and calcium. There are two types of tulsi viz. green type and purple. It can be planted in the pots or in the beds.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is one of the most significant trees in tropical and subtropical homegardens and perhaps the most widespread and useful tree in the important genus Artocarpus. Jackfruit belongs to the family Moraceae. The word “jackfruit” comes from Portuguese jaca, which is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. Jack fruit native to India and seen abundant in Western Ghats (Wangchu et al.,2013). Besides India, jackfruit is commonly grown in home gardens of tropical and sub-tropical countries especially Sri Lanka; Bangladesh, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Brazil. In India, it widely distributed in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and considered to be the “Poor mans food” (Prakash et al., 2009). In Malayalam, jack fruit is called as “Chakka” while the ancient Indian language Sanskrit refers as Atibruhatphala (Baliga et al., 2011). The morphology of the tree varies with 10-30 m tall; with long tap root and dense crown producing the largest tree born fruit in the world. The fruit weight up to 50 kg, but average weigh is considered to be 10 kg, while only 30-35% of the bulb is edible. Jack fruit is considered as national fruit in Bangladesh and highly appreciated in India due to cheap and availability in summer seasons were food is scarce (Muralidharan et al., 1997). It is a monoecious tree and both male and female inflorescences are found on the same tree. The fertilization is by cross-pollination and the propagation is mostly through seeds. The complete fruit development process takes about three to seven months from the pollination, varying in different countries. Jackfruit consists of lower fleshy edible region (bulb), middle fused region (syncarp) and out spiney region (spike). When ripe the fruit get fleshy, outer spines widened and flesh get soft and yellow. Except the thorny outer bark and axis are not edible (Baliga et al., 2011). The jackfruits were classified based on their phonotypical and organoleptic characteristics with variation in bulb colour as well as shape, size, odour, flake size, flake colour and period of maturity. Two types of ecotypes are recognized, one with soft and spongy flakes or bulbs while other with firm carpels.

1. Introduction

Pummelo is considered as largest fruit among all the Citrus species from the Rutaceae family. It is also known as shaddock, papanus or chakotra. Although C. grandis (L.) Osbeck is more frequently used, however C. maxima (Burm.) Merr. is considered as correct under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Singh and Navneet, 2017). It is considered as one of the four true species (natural, non-hybrid) of Citrus. The ltypical large size, thick rind is one of the causes for slow acceptance of pummelo in international market. However, it is presently considered as important fruit due to presence of various bio-active compounds related with human health and nutrition. The word ‘pummelo’ was originally derived from the Dutch word ‘pompelmoes’. The fruit is also named as ‘Shaddock’ after a Captain Shaddock who was believed to have introduced the fruit in Barbados on an East India Company ship on its way to England in the 17^th century. It is known by different names by different communities residing in India such as chakotra (Hindi), batabi lebu or jambura (Bengali), robab tenga (Assamese), nobab (Manipuri), ser trawk (Mizo), soh myngor or soh bah (Khasi), rabab tasing (Adi), papanas (Gujarati), chakota (Kannada), kambili naranga (Malayalam), pamparapanasa (Telugu), metukki or pampalimaku (Tamil) and bampara (Marathi) [Anon, 2019]. Pummelo can be distinguished from grapefruit by its larger size fruit, thicker albedo and the bunch bearing habit of grapefruit can also be considered for distinguishing it from pummelo (Scora et al., 1982). The crop is believed to have originated from South and Southeast Asia and it is now cultivated in many tropical and semi tropical countries. The top ten world producers of pummelo and grapefruit are USA, China, Mexio, South Africa, India, Argentina, Turkey, Cuba, Brazil and Tunisia (FAOSTAT, 2010). It is also cultivated in in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Chile, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Nepal. There is no report of its commercial cultivation in India till date; rather it is mainly grown in homestate gardens across the country including UP, Punjab, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. However, maximum genetic diversity in pummelo germplasm is found in North Eastern Region, West Bengal and Bihar (Singh et al., 2015).

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.

8.1 Medicinal use of Bamboo in Cattle: The important parts of bans (Bambusa arundinacea) used are the leaf and stem, which contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogenetic and glucoside. The leaf acts as an emmenagogue, stimulant, astringent, febrifuge, echbolic, and diuretic. It also acts against leprosy, tympany/bloat, diarrhea, retained placenta, threadworm, cough, and cold in horses. Flowering occurs once in ten to twelve years. The plant dries after flowering. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.2 Medicinal uses of Dendrocalamus Strictus: The leaf and other parts of kaban (Dendrocalamus strictus), which contain siliceous matter, are used as astringent and ecbolics in animals. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.3 Medicinal uses of Datura metel, D. alba, D. fastuosa: The leaf, root, fruit, and ripe seed of sadah datura (Datura metel) contain alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, scopalamine, allantoin, and vitamin C. They are used for treating insanity, fever with catarrh and cerebral complications, and the fruit is used to induce heat in animals and treat prolapse of uterus/ vagina. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.4 Medicinal uses of Dalbergia Sissoo: The stem bark, root, leaf, and mucilage of sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) contain tannin, dalberginone, dalbergin, allylphenol of latitontype, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-s-methoxyisoflorone, and are used for leprosy, boils, eruptions, to allay vomiting, and the oil is used for cutaneous afflictions. Mucilage of leaves mixed with sweet oil is applied in excoriations. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.5 Medicinal uses of Cyperus Rotundus: The tubers of motha mutha (Cyperus rotundus) have essential oils, myristic and stearic acid, unstable alkaloid, b-seilinne, cyperenone, and are used as diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, stimulant, tranquilizer, and antipyretic. (Parabia et al., 2000).

16.1. Overview of Medium and Small Enterprises (MSE) Growth

In most developing countries, MSEs constitute the vast majority of firms, generating a substantial share of both overall employment and output. Given their significant economic role, one might expect MSE growth to drive overall increases in output and income levels. In many cases, however, their largest economic contribution appears to be one of maintaining, rather than generating new, employment and income for the poor. At an aggregate level, MSEs demonstrate impressive growth, 3 especially when compared with larger firms. However, many individual MSEs grow slowly or not at all, in some cases, due to a conscious decision on the part of the business owner. Overall growth rates are often fueled by the rapid expansion of a narrow group of highly performing MSEs. In dev e loping as well as in developed countries, there appears to be a small group of “gazelles”, firms that outperform their peers and drive aggregate employment and productivity growth for the small business sector. Why do some MSEs expand rapidly, while others stagnate? What factors account for the wide variation observed in MSE growth trajectories? This paper explores a wide array of specific factors, but it is first useful to consider a broader conceptual frame work of opportunities and capabilities. Clearly, opportunities for profitable business activities shape the ability of an entrepreneur to expand his or her firm.

2.1. Place of SME in Remeding The Nigerian Economic Paradox

This can best be explained by the two-gap economic model. The Two-Gap Models of development are contained in the Post-Keynesian growth models designed by Harrod and Domar. They tried to identify the pre-conditions for the economic growth of market economies. These two preconditions are es- sentially rooted in the Nigerian economy and these are (1) Internally: inad- equate savings would definitely translate to investment. The GAP between these two is called saving constraints (SAVING GAP). Closing this gap re- quires SME-financing. (2) Externally: inadequate foreign exchange arising from inability to export vis-à-vis high importation will lead to short fall in foreign exchange. The GAP between these two is called foreign exchange constraints (TRADE GAP) which can be corrected by facilitating the establishment of indigenous enterprises through a national embrace of the SME-initiatives. Ni- gerian leaders resorted to foreign aid assistance from developed countries, multilateral and bilateral international organizations to salvage the economy from total collapse; but, we can’t continue to carry the begging bow as our benefac- tors only give us fish and don’t teach us how to catch fish.

SEX IS VERY COSTLY

Large amounts of energy required to find a mate and do the mating: specialized structures and behavior required

Intimate contact provides route for infection by parasites (AIDS, syphillis, etc.)

Genetic costs: in sex you pass on only half your genes to your children

Males are an expensive luxury- in most species they contribute little to rearing offspring

But There are Some Advantages

More genetic diversity: more potential for survival of species when environmental conditions change

Shuffling of genes in meiosis (random separation of homologous chromosomes)

Crossing-over in meiosis (see below)

Fertilization (genes from 2 individuals brought together)

It is more common in dogs and frequently seen in the skin and oral cavity. It usually occurs in 5 to 11 years old dogs. Benign melanomas are solitary, circumscribed, alopecic firm and freely movable blue black coloured nodules in the skin. Malignant melanoma is sessile, polypoid to plaque like grey or brown black coloured granules in the skin with ulceration.

Clasping stemmed Solena or diversely leaved Melothria or creeping cucumber (Solena amplexicaulis Lam. Syn. Bryonia amplexicaulis (Lam), Melothria heterophylla (Lour), Melothria angulata Chakrav) is an indigenous cucurbit vegetable occuring in nature nearby cultivated areas on hedges or in open fields In Greek Solen means’ a tube,pipe’ refering to the nature of its flowers. The vernacular names are Bon-kundari, kudari, makal, mahakal (bengali), gometti (marati), kanduri, kuduri (bundelkhand), bankakra (champa), gometi (gujarati, anatmul, mahakal, taarali, kaduri (hindi),makirla (chattirgarh), kaage mari balli (kanarese) etc. This is a perennial vine, dioecious in nature. Tender fruits are used as salad, curry and  fried vegetable. It has significant medicinal value also.  In tribal regions of Orissa, fruits of Melothria are considered as delicacy. Visualizing the delicate nature of its fruits, it has great potential as a salad crop in  future.

Membrane technology is a proven separation method used on the molecular and ionic levels. Since the beginning of the 1970s, this technique has been adopted by the dairy industry. Membrane separation is widely used in dairy processing plants to perform an ever-increasing range of duties, e.g. pre-concentration, partial demineralization, protein separation, bacteria removal, brine clarification and waste water recycling. Representing one of the great technological developments occurring within the dairy industry during the second half of the twentieth century, progress was driven initially by the transfer of know-how gleaned from the application of cellulose acetate-based reverse osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes in other industrial sectors to whey processing. Later, new membrane materials and engineering designs were built on this initial achievement and opened up further opportunities for the application of the full spectrum of membrane separation systems that also includes Nan filtration (NF) and cross-flow microfiltration The integration of these unit operations into traditional dairy processes has led to the development of innovative ingredients as well as improvements in yield, efficiency and product quality. R & D work indicates potential RO application for concentration of milk for products like khoa, condensed and dried milk products and of UF application for the manufacture of shrikhand, paneer, chana and cheese. Application of these processes permits higher energy saving, higher yields and superior product quality compared to traditional processes of thermal evaporation.

1. Introduction

Pulpy and juicy fruits like orange, guava, banana, grape, mango, papaya, pears, apples and jackfruit can be converted into fruit products like squashes, juices, cordials and ready-to-serve (RTS) fruit beverages. These RTS fruit beverages are both refreshing and thirst quenching and have become very popular. Liquid fruits are the clarified juices prepared from these pulpy and juicy fruits. There is a demand for liquid fruits in the international market for various applications. The liquid fruits can be used as a natural alternative to synthetic beverages. They can be suitably concentrated or diluted, blended with other juices and also can be carbonated as fruit based soft drinks. Removals of pulpy material from the juices make them easier to preserve by pasteurization and are amenable to carbonation. Pulpy fruits can be successfully processed into liquid fruits (clarified juices) by using pectic enzymes. The emphasis of the fruit juice processing industry has, so far, been mainly on conventional clarification processes like enzymatic and chemical treatments followed by filtration using filter aids; and concentration by vacuum evaporation.

1. Introduction

Membranes separation processes have gained widespread applications in food industry. High selectivity of membrane has been exploited for separating a particular component from complex liquid food mixture and for controlled release of active ingredients like preservatives or flavor compounds. Today, a number of chemical processes utilizing the unique properties of membrane have been developed for commercial application in food industry with specific advantage of low energy requirement. Membrane separation/molecular sieving is one among those food engineering principals which has found broad range of applications including concentration of heat labile compounds, recovery of solvent, downstream processing, flavor volatile recovery, deacidification, desalination, waste water treatment etc

Introduction
Ensuring environmental sustainability through wastewater treatment is a crucial part of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The global shortage of clean water and the potential for future water scarcity, particularly in developing countries, represent a major crisis for humanity in this century and beyond. The UN reports that 1.2 billion people currently lack access to clean drinking water, and half of the global population does not have sufficient water purification. By 2025, it is expected that 1.8 billion people will live in regions facing severe water shortages (WHO, 2018). Currently, onethird
of the world’s population lives in water-stressed countries, and this figure is expected to increase to two-thirds by 2025. By 2050, between 2 and 7 billion people may face water shortages. The worsening water situation is largely due to inadequate water supplies and rising demand in developing countries driven by rapid population growth and industrialization. Contaminated water and poor sanitation contribute to nearly 60% of global illnesses. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation facilities, and over 1 billion lack access to safe drinking water. Unclean water can lead to diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, guinea worm infections, typhoid, intestinal worms, and trachoma (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that four billion people suffer from diarrhea each year, leading to nearly 1.8 million deaths, with 90% of these deaths occurring in children under five years old. The quality of available water is declining because of rising pollution from industrial, agricultural, and other human activities. This issue is becoming a significant environmental problem.

Introduction

Since 1990, there has been a lot of interest in functional foods and nutraceuticals, particularly because of their impact effects on human health and the prevention of certain diseases. Apart from growing good quality natural products, there are challenges in extracting, refining, analyzing active ingredients, and evaluating safety before an effective, reliable product is made [1,2]. Special attention needs to be focused on separation and purification mainly because 40-80% of the cost of production is assigned to separation and purification unit operations in making functional foods and nutraceuticals. There are also several carotenoids and polyphenol products that have been identified from various plants and a single plant could contain highly complex profiles of these compounds. These are labile to heat, air, and light, and they may exist at low concentrations in the plants. This makes the separation and detection of nutraceuticals a challenging task. The membrane techniques used for the separation of nutraceuticals from the natural products, as well as their applications and influencing factors are discussed in this chapter [3, 4].

ALL MOLECULES MOVE CONTINUOUSLY BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Heat energy causes molecules to move randomly (sometimes called Brownian motion)

If the concentration of molecules is different in 2 regions (this produces a concentration gradient), diffusion will cause molecules to move from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration

The higher the concentration gradient the more rapid the net diffusion

Diffusion evens out the concentrations so they are equal everywhere (maximum entropy)

If 2 different substances have the same concentration gradient, usually one will move faster than the other

Differences in speed between molecules with the same concentration gradient are given in terms of diffusion constants

A substance with a high diffusion constant moves faster than one with a low diffusion constant

In general, large molecules move slower than small molecules

Diffusion across a membrane is called permeability, and membrane diffusion constants are called permeability constants

Introduction
Public speaking is a skill that blends art and science. It requires a speaker to convey ideas effectively while engaging and inspiring an audience. One technique often employed by speakers is “memorize speaking,” where the speech is committed entirely to memory and delivered without notes. While it has its challenges, memorize speaking can be an invaluable skill, especially in professional settings, competitions, or high-stakes events where precision and fluency are essential.
This chapter explores the concept of memorize speaking, its benefits and challenges, strategies for mastering it, and practical tips for delivering impactful memorized speeches.
Understanding Memorize Speaking
Memorize speaking refers to delivering a speech that has been rehearsed to the point where it can be presented from memory without reliance on notes or visual aids. Unlike extemporaneous speaking, which relies on a general outline and prompts spontaneity, memorize speaking demands a more structured and methodical approach.
Memorize speaking is often used in contexts such as:
1. Public performances like theater or TED Talks.
2. Competitions where precision and timing are critical.
3. Professional presentations that require polished delivery.

1. The first Director of IARI was ?????.
   1. M. S. Randhawa
   2. B. P. Pal
   3. M. S. Swaminathan
   4. G. Kalloo
2. In vegetable blanching is done for?????.
   1. Removal of microorganism
   2. To activate the enzymes
   3. To retention colour
   4. All of the above
3. Viviparous refers to?????.
   1. Germination of seed on mother plant
   2. Germination of seed in the field
   3. Germination of the seed on monoecious plant
   4. Germination of seed on any place
4. Sourness in radish is due to ?????.
   1. Isosinate
   2. Isothiocinate
   3. Anthocyanin
   4. All of the above

About Mendel

Born in what is now the Czeck Republic.

Grew up in an agricultural environment.

Became a priest-teacher at a local monastery.

Took courses in botany, physics, and mathematics at the University of Vienna.

Gregor Mendel was the first person to comprehend some of the most basic principles of genetics. He reached these understandings in the mid-nineteenth century; working in what is now the Czech Republic and using as his experimental subjects a species of garden pea, Pisum sativum..

Carried out “hybridization” experiments with the common garden pea.

Mendel’s hypotheses became the laws of inheritance in modern genetics.

Mendel’s work re-discovered by Correns, DeVries, and Tschermak in 1900. Period of modern “Mendelian” genetics begin.

Historically the first and still the most conclusive evidence for the existence of genes comes from the phenomenon of segregation of traits observed in the offspring of hybrids between individuals or strains that differ in some recognizable respect. The principle of segregation was formulated by Gregor Johann Mendel in 1866 under such peculiar circumstances that the scientific world failed to recognize it until after a lapse of 34 years. In the first place Gregor Mendel was not primarily a biologist but a Monk in the Augustinian monastery at Bruenn, Austria (now Brno, Moravia in Czech Republic). During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener and studied beekeeping. He became part time monk because it enabled him to obtain an education without having to pay for it himself. From 1840 to 1843 he studied Practical and Theoretical Philosophy and Physics at the Philosophical Institute of the University of Olomouc. Upon recommendation of his teacher, Mendel entered the Augustinian St. Thomas Abbey in Brno and began his training as a Priest. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering religious life. Mendel worked also as a substitute High School teacher. In 1850, he failed the oral part of his examination and could not become a certified High School Teacher. In 1851, he was sent to the University of Vienna to study further so that he could get formal education. Mendel returned to his Abbey in 1853 as a Physics teacher. In 1856, he took the examination to become a certified teacher but again failed the oral part.

Introduction
Plant breeding involves the application of natural and artificial selection to create heritable variations and novel combinations of alleles in plants, aiming to identify those with new and useful properties. The primary goals of plant breeding are to develop crop varieties with unique and superior traits for various agricultural applications. Commonly targeted traits include tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, high grain or biomass yield, end-use quality characteristics such as taste, and specific concentrations of biological molecules (proteins, sugars, lipids, vitamins, fibers). Additionally, ease of processing (harvesting, milling, baking, malting, blending, etc.) is often a key consideration. The specific goals of a plant breeding project are highly dependent on the intended market for the product. For instance, in wheat, varieties bred for high gluten protein content are used for making noodles and breads, while varieties selected for low protein content are used for pastry flours. Similarly, grape varieties are developed with varying chemical compositions to suit different applications such as juices, red and white wines, and jams.
Plant breeders utilize various techniques to enhance the genetic composition of crops, with successful strategies depending on the plant’s physical, physiological, and hereditary characteristics. Different breeding approaches are needed for self-pollinating, cross-pollinating, and clonally-propagated plants. As human civilization has advanced, the methods used by plant breeders have evolved, incorporating humanity’s growing understanding of genetics.

A fair number of practical breeding experiments were done in ancient times

People knew there was a connection between sex and reproduction

The idea had developed that “like begets like”

By selecting certain plants and animals and breeding them many domestic varieties of plants and animals had been developed

Example: corn was developed from a wild grass in Mexico and Central America, probably about 5000 years ago

149 of the top 150 plant crops were domesticated by primitive man

Mendel’s 3 Laws (Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance).In the 1860s, an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel introduced a new theory of inheritance based on his experimental work with pea plants.Mendel believed that heredity is the result of discrete units of inheritance, and every single unit (or gene) was independent in its actions in an individual’s genome.According to this Mendelian concept, the inheritance of a trait depended on the passingon of these units.For any given trait, an individual inherits one gene from each parent so that the individual has a pairing of two genes. We now understand the alternate forms of these units as ‘alleles’.If the two alleles that form the pair for a trait are identical, then the individual is said to be homozygous and if the two genes are different, then the individual is heterozygous for the trait.The breeding experiments of the monk in the mid-1800s laid the groundwork for the science of genetics.He studied peas plant for 7 years and published his results in 1866 which was ignored until 1900 when three separate botanists, who also were theorizing about heredity in plants, independently cited the work.In appreciation of his work he was considered as the “Father of Genetics”. A new stream of genetics was established after his name as Mendelian genetics which involves the study of heredity of both qualitative (monogenic) and quantitative (polygenic) traits and the influence of environment on their expressions.Mendelian inheritance while is a type of biological inheritance that follows the laws originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900.
Mendel carried out breeding experiments in his monastery’s garden to test inheritance patterns. He selectively cross-bred common pea plants (Pisum sativum) with selected traits over several generations. After crossing two plants which differed in a single trait (tall stems vs. short stems, round peas vs. wrinkled peas, purple flowers vs. white flowers, etc), Mendel discovered that the next generation, the “F1” (first filial generation), was comprised entirely of individuals exhibiting only one of the traits. However, when this generation was interbred, its offspring, the “F2” (second filial generation), showed a 3:1 ratio- three individuals had the same trait as one parent and one individual had the other parent’s trait.

Mental and emotional health encompasses psychological, emotional, and social well-being. It influences how people think, feel, behave, make decisions, cope with difficulties, and interact with others. Mental health is not merely the absence of mental illness; it is an essential component of overall health and quality of life. Regular self-care can help individuals maintain emotional balance and support treatment and recovery when mental-health problems occur. Psychologists and mental-health professionals have an important responsibility to assist emotionally distressed individuals in overcoming adjustment and personality-related problems and leading normal, productive lives. Mental and emotional difficulties may be triggered by stressful circumstances, including bereavement, family conflict, relationship changes, physical illness, or incomplete recovery caused by stopping treatment prematurely. Recognising such triggers and early warning signs can help prevent symptoms from worsening. Therefore, proper care, healthy habits, professional support, and preventive strategies are necessary to promote lasting mental and emotional well-being throughout every stage of human life.

According to the World Health Organization (2005), total health means the physical, mental, emotional and social health of a person. In these days of turmoil and hustle-bustle of modern life, emotional health has become as important as physical and mental health of an individual. A man should be physically fit, mentally alert, emotionally matured and socially adjusted, to lead a well-balanced life. A man who is having sound physical and mental health will also have good emotional health which will lead to social health. It means that all these four components of health are interrelated.

Emotional health depends upon a man’s emotional wellbeing, which is based on our self-concept, and self-esteem, that is how we feel about ourselves and behavior which is appropriate and healthy. Emotionally healthy people can adjust to their environment and solve their problems effectively and efficiently and in this way, they get satisfaction and pleasure out of life. So, it is essential to study the mental and emotional health of an individual, as both mental and emotional health are interrelated. It means that a person who is mentally healthy will also be emotionally healthy. In the same way, one who has good emotional health will also have good mental health.

For the maintenance of mental health, positive behavior or positivity in life is a very essential trait. Positive behavior helps develop love, mental peace, harmony, cordiality, happiness, and better inter-personal relationships; whereas negative behavior is responsible for creating animosity, hatred, fear and anger among us, which adversely affects our mental health. It will make us unhappy, miserable, and sad.

Positive behavior leads to positive thinking, positive feelings, and positive actions. On the other hand, negative behavior develops negative thoughts, negative attitudes, as well as nefarious activities. Psychologists are working in this area to make the life of a man happy, effective, and successful. This area is called Positive Psychology, which is a recent branch of psychology that is the youngest area in the behavioral sciences.

Positive psychologists seek “to find and nurture genius and talent and to make normal life more fulfilling” (Crompton, 2005) and not simply to treat mental illnesses. They are trying to make the world a happier place.

Disorders of Children and Youth
Although it is sometimes assumed that childhood and adolescence are times of carefree bliss, as many as 20% of children and adolescents have one or more diagnosable mental disorders. Most of these disorders may be viewed as exaggerations or distortions of normal behaviors and emotions. Childhood mental and developmental disorders encompass neurodevelopmental, emotional and behavioral disorders that have broad and serious adverse impacts on psychological and social wellbeing. Children with these disorders require significant additional support from families and educational systems. These children are more likely to experience a compromised developmental trajectory, with increased need for medical and disability services, as well as increased risk of contact with law enforcement agencies (Fergusson and others, 1993).
Like adults, children and adolescents vary in temperament. Some are shy and reticent; others are socially exuberant. Some are methodical and cautious and others are impulsive and careless. Whether a child is behaving like a typical child or has a disorder is determined by the presence of impairment and the degree of distress related to the symptoms. For example, a 12-yr-old girl may be frightened by the prospect of delivering a class report in front of her class. This fear would be viewed as social phobia only if her fears were severe enough to cause significant impairments and distress. The mental disorders that children can develop are commonly divided into two groups: disruptive or externalizing behavior disorders (e.g., attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct problems) and emotional or internalizing behavior disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression). In this unit we would focus on types of internalizing and externalizing disorders in children. We will also discuss in depth the etiology and treatment involved in these disorders.

Suicide among young people is a very serious problem in our society. Suicide is the second leading cause of death among children, adolescents, and young adults aged 15 to 29. Most children and adolescents who attempt suicide have a significant mental health disorder, usually depression.

Suicide is a problem throughout the lifespan. Suicidal behavior refers to talking about or taking actions related to ending one’s own life. Suicidal thoughts and behaviors should be considered a psychiatric problem. It is like injuring oneself and harming oneself. It is ending the life of the self.

Suicide is a psycho-social problem. It is related to the emotional life of a man. It has social ramifications, as it is a criminal offence, which is a kind of crime. Suicide is an act of intentionally causing one’s own death. It is considered self-murder. It is not concerned with inter-personal relations, but it deals with intra-personal relations. Because it is a self-injurious behavior with the desire to end one’s own life, it is a kind of mental disorder