eChapters

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The Climate and soil play important role in growth and development of the plant. Growers in general and fruit growers in particular should have adequate knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic conditions on raising horticultural crops. Horticultural crops cannot be grown in all types of soil and climate. Hence zone- wise cultivation is made. Climate includes a number of parameters like temperature, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, wind, hail and light whereas soil covers factors like moisture content, texture, soil reaction, nutrient content, chemical composition and soil temperature.

6.2 SOIL

Soil is a thin outer covering of the earth surface. It is the natural resource directly developed by different natural forces acting on natural materials. Soil serves as a base and support for plant growth. It is a basic medium for plant growth and supplies nutrients for growing plants. Soil is the home of the plant root and the reservoir for essential nutrients and water for growth and development of crop plants.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well-realized factor for persons engaged in horticulture field. So, nurseries have great demand for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers and grafts. But in general, good quality and assured planting material at reasonable price is not available many a times. Nursery is the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. The difficulty of procuring tree seeds and their rising cost makes it necessary to find means to increase seedling survival and growth.

Raising a nursery needs a great skill. Nursery business has become an agro- business for the unemployed youths. Generally, various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of genuine type. So, nursery raising is quite a remunerative enterprise.

Nursery is a special place where seeds are sown, plants are propagated, grown, nurtured to usable size for planting or for sale. Nurseries provide the necessary control of moisture, light, soil and predators and allow production of healthy and hardy seedlings.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

India enjoys a wide range of climates and agro-meteorological zones which are suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops like fruits, vegetables, f lowers, spices and condiments, plantation crops, and medicinal and aromatic plants.

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world. India stands second both in production of fruits and vegetables next to China. China contributes 21.2% in the world fruit production whereas India produces 12.6%. When we think of vegetables, China produces 49.5% and India produces 14.09%. India is the largest producer of Mango, Banana, Papaya, Coconut, Arecanut, and Cashewnut in the world. In the country, Andhra Pradesh (13.0%) is the leading state in fruit production followed by Maharashtra (11.2%). In case of vegetables, Uttar Pradesh stands first occupying 15.1% share followed by West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh in the range of 14.6% and 10% respectively. In cut flower production West Bengal ranks first.

Total horticultural production for the year 2017–18 was 311.71 million tonnes from cropping area of 25.43 million hectares of land and an estimated production for the crop year 2018-19 is 314.87 million tonnes from an area of 25.6 million hectares.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Life cannot be sustained without adequate nourishment. Human beings need adequate food for growth, development and to lead an active and healthy life. Animals satisfy basic food requirement mainly through natural selection. But human beings have access to a wide range of foods to choose to make up their diet. Since all foods are not of same quality from nutritional point of view, man’s ability to meet his nutritional need and maintenance of good health depend upon type and quantity of foods he is able to include in his diet to satisfy hunger. Human beings need a wide range of nutrients to perform various functions in the body and to lead a healthy life. Several reports have shown that adequate intake of fruits and vegetables forms an important part of a healthy diet and low fruit and vegetable intake constitutes a risk factor for chronic diseases such as cancer, coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke and cataract formation. The nutrients include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. The foods containing these nutrients which we consume daily are classified as cereals, legumes, nuts and oil seeds, fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products and f lesh foods like fish, meat and poultry. Some foods provide only a single nutrient and some multiples. Scientific evidence indicates that frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables can prevent oesophageal, stomach, pancreatic, bladder and cervical cancers and that a diet high in fruits and vegetables could prevent 20% of most types of cancers. Reports indicate that increasing individual fruit and vegetable consumption by 600 g per day could reduce the global burden of stroke by 19% and decrease the risk of coronary heart diseases by 31% respectively. Realizing the food value of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommends per capita use of 120g fruits and 280g vegetables per day.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Owing to a varied agro-ecological and eco- edaphic condition prevalent in one or other part of the country, quite a large number of crops are grown in different parts of India. India is rich in bio-diversity with four hotspots out of twenty-five in the world. About 356 domesticated plant species having economic and botanical importance and 326 species with their wild relatives are found in Indian sub-continent. Besides the above, 9500 other plant species are also available. More than 50 different types of fruits, 50 different types of vegetables, 95 types of spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and ornamental crop plants have been recorded. To avoid confusion and identity, the horticultural plants are grouped into different categories based on similarity or dissimilarities. Grouping of the crop plants with similar characteristics is referred as classification.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

India is the seventh largest country in the world in total geographical area and has second largest population next to China. Around 55 to 60 per cent of its population depend on agriculture and allied activities. Horticultural crops constitute a significant component of total agricultural production in the country. They require very intensive care in planting, carrying out different cultural operations, manipulating growth, harvesting, packing, transportation, marketing, storage and processing.

1.2 AGRICULTURE

The term agriculture broadly refers to the technology of raising plants and animals. Agriculture is the science, art or practice of cultivating soil, producing crops and raising livestock in varying degree of proportion followed by marketing. In other words, it is the activity of man to produce three basic needs of human being, i.e., food, fuel and fibre (3F) by using terrestrial resources optimally. The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words ager meaning field or land and cultura meaning cultivation or growing.

Abstract

Women empowerment is a buzz word of every platform starting from household issues to national politics. The best way to empower women is to make them economically self-reliant through entrepreneurial activities. In India agriculture is mainstay of the country and 70 percent women are farmers, so the best measure to empower them is through entrepreneurship in agriculture and allied sectors particularly organic agriculture as India currently holds a prominent position among 172 countries that actively practice it. At present, the country is home to more than 8, 50,000 organic producers, 699 processors, 669 exporters, and 7, 20,000 hectares under cultivation. Merely with 0.4 per cent of total agricultural land area under organic cultivation, India has attained global standing which infers that this industry still has a long way to go in terms of growth and opportunities for socio-economic development. Organic Food industry has been experiencing steadfast growth in past few years in India in spite of several challenges at producer, processor and consumer levels. With its annual turnover of Rs 4000 crore and annual growth rate of 25%, the country’s budding organic food market is transforming into world’s fastest growing organic food market with expected turnover of 10,000 crore by 2020. There is drastic change in consumer behavior and spending patterns in the country which has opened avenues for organic food industry at the national level besides export. This highscale opportunity is driven by the fact that organic food consumption is not even 0.1 percent of India’s $300 billion annual food consumption. Likewise, India’s share in the $100 billion global organic food market is less than 0.2 percent. Further, the scope of the opportunity is also driven by the increasing variety of organic foods hitting the market and the emergence of e-commerce as a channel in which to sell the product. India today is on the threshold of organic revolution where women participation will act as booster but need to be supported by Govts and technical institutions. Barriers to improving women’s agency include widespread deficiencies in policy support to women, and in fact to the organic farming sector as a whole. It is necessary to increase women’s research presence in organic research institutions (including at the higher levels). To enable women to conduct research in the field, it is important to allow women to set research agendas, and to work with their research needs and priorities. Food security as a priority for organic agriculture involves women’s empowerment since they hold a central role in providing nutrition for the household.

Abstract

The future food grain demand in India is projected to increase beyond 300 million tons by 2025. There are only two ways to meet the increasing food and other agricultural demands of the country’s rising population either expanding the net area under cultivation or intensifying cropping over the existing area. The net sown area of the country has risen by about 20 per cent since independence and has reached a point where it is not possible to make any appreciable increase. The option left is go for high cropping intensity for ahead of present of 137%. A major share of this increase is likely to come from increasing the number of crops produced per year on a given land using improved crop cultivars. Research indicates that maximum intensity of 400-500% is possible provided situation fulfills the requisite factors such as irrigation facilities, short duration varieties, mechanization and agrochemicals are available. The objective of increasing the cropping intensity will be achieved only by the inclusion of short duration varieties of cereals, identification of pulses and oilseed crops that can fit well in the cropping systems of different agro-ecologies that will ultimately improve crop productivity per unit of land making the efficient utilization of resources and will meet the objectives of crop diversification leading to food and economic security of the nation.

Abstract

Climate models predict a global average increase of air temperatures in the range of 14^°C by 2100 (IPCC 2014) - a pace exceeding that of past climatic modifications. Change in temperature is expected to influence species occurrence and distribution with up to 37% of all extant species “committed to extinction” due to climate change. These predictions, however, do not include species interactions and evolutionary change which will significantly alter the fate of species. It is therefore important to improve our understanding of host-parasite interactions and subsequent evolution in response to environmental changes in general and temperature changes in particular. Globally livestock production systems are estimated to account for around 18% of emissions. The need of hour is to draw on recent advances in climatology and epidemiology of various parasitic diseases to consider how environmental changes linked with urbanization and climate change can alter the biology of hosts, pathogens and vectors. Climate change is leading to unusual flare-up of diseases, outbreak recurrences, range expansions, or invasion into novel territories and ecosystems, concomitantly with vector or host range shifts. Higher temperatures increase the invertebrate metabolic rate, egg production amount, and feeding frequency, reducing the duration of the development periods and impacting on the number of generations per year and population abundance effecting livestock and human health and socio-economic transformation

Abstract

India with population of 1.30 billion in which 47 per cent is engaged in agriculture earnestly needs efficiently use of biotechnology and genetic engineering for transforming agriculture sector. Biotechnological tools offer great opportunities for increasing agricultural production and can play an important role towards the attainment of production sustainability of crops. Biotechnological tools have the potential to release burgeoning pressure on agriculture and allied sectors; ecology and environment; plant, animal and microbial biodiversity; and allied resources such as land and water with improved and sustainable agricultural productivity which enhances food security. Agricultural biotechnology, including tissue culture, DNA-marker-assisted breeding and genetic engineering (GE) technology have potential to increase stress tolerant, selection efficiency, crop adaptation, crop productivity and food security in more efficiently manner through the development of improved varieties with increased yields, nutritional content and storage characteristics. Genetic engineering tools should continue to build capacity in this technology, giving priority to traits and crops that are of economic importance such as drought tolerance in maize, rice, beans; cold tolerance in rice; increased nutritional value and improved shelf life in fruits and vegetables. Crop varieties and livestock with improved characteristics have been developed using tools such as marker-assisted breeding and genetic engineering. Molecular pharming is one of the applications of genetically modified crops and livestock for the production of pharmaceutical proteins. Reproductive technologies are alternative ways for genetic improvement of livestock. The development of molecular diagnostics and vaccine technology as a tool improved the ability to detect and treat several diseases of livestock. The advancements in biotechnological tools such as protein engineering and metabolic engineering play a significant role in production of a large number of valuable and high quality industrial products.

Abstract

A Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is synonymous to farm science center with responsibilities of on- farm technological assessment, front line demonstrations, capacity building, advisory services and mulit-sector support to various private and public initiatives. The KVKs work under the ambit of ICAR, New Delhi with administrative support from local institutions or State Agricultural Universities. There were about 695 KVKs operational in India till October 2018. All KVKs fall under the jurisdiction of one of the 11 Agricultural Technology Application Research Institutes (ATARIs) spread throughout India. 21 KVKs are functioning in Jammu and Kashmir with seven of them in Jammu province namely KVK Jammu, Samba, Kathua, Reasi, Rajouri, Doda and Poonchh. The major thrust areas of hilly district Jammu and Kashmir are as integrated nutrient/pest/weed management in different crops, water management, promoting organic farming, protected cultivation of high value and low volume crops, promotion of aromatic and medicinal plants, increase in the productivity of livestock, drudgery reduction for farm women, promotion of loose flower cultivation, promotion of new single cross hybrids in maize, value addition of agricultural products and promotion of farming system approach. KVK Reasi has been able to motivate farmers of the district to adopt and practice organic farming, floriculture, backyard poultry farming and mushroom production at the commercial level.

Abstract

Remote sensing has wider applications in agriculture right from landscape mapping, soil moisture, planting dates, cropping systems to climate change effects. Growing uncertainties of weather and climate change pose a major threat to food security of the country and thus warrant for farmers empowerment of informed decision in agricultural risk management. The technology is competent to monitor crop growth, predict crop yield in terms of quantity and quality, assists in estimating crop acreage, its condition, disease and pest status. Over the last two decades, the development of space technology has led to a substantial increase in satellite earth observation systems. Simultaneously, the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) revolution has rendered increasingly effective the processing of data for specific uses and their instantaneous distribution on the World Wide Web (WWW). Satellite data provide better coverage in time and in area extent than any other alternative. It is important to make maximum use of this information to monitor our environment. Access to these Satellite data and products is only the beginning. In addition, the ability to interpret, combine, and make maximum use of this information is an integral part of weather and climate management at the national level. Production estimates, post harvest and quantity available for market enable the farmers and policy makers to chalk out sustainable strategy to match supply with market demand.

Abstract

Agriculture is at a cross-road in J&K wherein the small holdings, profitability, livelihood security and sustainability issues are the factors adding to the existing agrarian crisis in the state in particular and the country in general. This requires a decisive direction shift at the policy level towards adoption of integrated farming system. There is a need of fundamental change from the unilateral, top-down, prescriptive “knowledge generation and transmission” models of agriculture development adopted in the country so far, which have in fact resulted in an ecological, economic and social crisis in the farming sector of the state during 40 years of adoption and that climate change is one more imperative for drastic change to address the situation. Climate change is already a reality for farming community and that conventional models of agricultural research and extension have failed to address the need of the hour unless some fundamental recasting in the form of diversified farming system is adopted. The immediate need for interventional action precludes traditional models of research and support systems and requires alternative but urgent programmatic interventions, led by farmers’ institutions and their local resources, knowledge and innovations. Existing mainstream models of farming are GHG-inducing and are not conducive to adoption either given their high external-input dependency-models which increases the risk of vulnerable farmers. Integrated farming system a key to sustainable agriculture, on the other hand, holds immense mitigation and adaptation potential, specifically in the context of climate change even as it improves rural livelihoods and addresses the ecological crisis in farming of today under various climatic regions of Jammu in particular and state in general. Jammu region of the J&K state is bestowed with varying climate zones i.e. subtropical, intermediate and temperate zones, which is best suited for diversified farming,as the promotion of single enterprise is neither beneficial from economy point of view nor is sustainable under the given climate change crisis. The integration of Crops, Horticulture, Animal ,Fish cum Poultry, Mushroom, Vermicompost, Apairy, Biogas and Boundary plantation enterprises in Jammu region under integrating farming system is having the potential to improve the farm income to three folds besides will address the sustainability issues in the long run.

ABSTRACT

Losses and benefits in agricultural production are associated with various weather parameters. So prediction of weather systems in different spatial and temporal scale over the Indian region therefore assumes considerable socio-economic importance. Meteorological information also plays an important role in the following operations in agriculture. The meteorological services can help the farmers & the planners exploit the potential of good weather and minimize the impact of bad weather as there exist tremendous opportunities for applications of meteorology in both day to day and long term planning in agriculture and such applications could contribute substantially to promote sustainable agriculture and poverty alleviation and the management of agrometeorological data is the key to these applications. Therefore, the area and input intensive agriculture is leading us into an era of unsustainable agricultural growth as the crucial components of sustainable agricultural production and distribution system such as integration of natural biological cycles and controls; protection and renewal of soil fertility and the natural resource base; optimization of the use of nonrenewable resources and of on-farm & off- farm inputs; ensuring dependable farm income. Hence, the meteorological information may help the farmer make the most efficient use of natural resources, with the aim of improving agricultural production both in quantity and quality. It becomes more and more important to supply meteorological information blended with weather sensitive management operations before the start of cropping season in order to adapt the agricultural system to increased weather variability. Subsequent to this, weather forecast based Agro-meteorological advisories become vital to stabilize their yields through management of agro-climatic resources as well as other inputs such as irrigation, fertilizer and pesticides. The main emphasis of the existing AAS system is to collect and organize climate/weather, soil and crop information, and to amalgamate them with weather forecast to assist farmers in taking management decisions. This has helped to develop and apply operational tools to manage weather related uncertainties through agro-meteorological applications for efficient agriculture in rapidly changing environments. Hence, weather information and advisories have assumed greater significance under the increased variability in the changing climate. Thus, Weather forecasting and advisory has become an indispensable aid for sustainable agro-transformation

Abstract

Over the years, India has emerged as one of the world’s biggest producers of milk, with the total milk production rising from 122 Million Metric Tons in 2010 to 171 Million Metric Tons in 2017 with dairy market in India touching a value of INR 7,916 Billion. An average livestock contributes about 12 % of farmer’s income and the same for small and marginal farmers and landless laborers’ is 36 %. While farmer’s income in agriculture is growing at 3.5 % annually, income from livestock is growing at about 14.5 %. Despite this, the majority of the dairy industry in India is still highly unorganized and dominated by small and marginal dairy farmers. Of all the major rural enterprises, dairy is an important profession of economic and social transformation to supplement the income and employment to the rural sector in general and rural women in particular. The process of dairy development would be incomplete and lop sided, unless farm women are fully involved in it. Indian dairy industry also offers good opportunities to both domestic and foreign investors for entry and expansion. Low yielding breeds, costly animal feeds, inadequate market linkage and predominance of handling dairy through indigenous technologies mar the Indian dairy industry. It is imperative to develop proper production, processing and marketing infrastructure if India has to emerge as an exporting country which is capable of meeting international quality requirements. It is anticipated that milk production in India will further grow at a CAGR of around 15% between 2018 and 2023. A comprehensive plan for producing quality and safe dairy products should be formulated with suitable legal backup. Dairy products’ consumption has been growing exponentially in the country owing to their rich nutritional qualities. Thus, it has enormous scope for women empowerment and socio-economic transformation of rural India and must rank top in our developmental agenda.

Abstract

Organic farming has proved to be effective technology for socio-economic empowerment of Indian farmers as it imposes positive changes in social factors in the local communities. There is tremendous scope of export, entrepreneurship and employment opportunities in organic farming in India. Local, regional, national and global markets are developing sinks for organic products. Organic crop production is sustainable and has positive impact on the ecology and socio-economic status of the peoples. Various socio-economic factors influence the farmers’ choice to adopt organic cultivation. Several threats and weaknesses exist. Hence, there is a need to address the weaknesses of the organic system by integrating it with innovative tools of marketing and ICTs so that there is alignment in demand- production-supply so concerted efforts are needed to establish production-consumption linkages through PPP mode. It will offset threats of organic farming thereby making it more remunerative and promising. The existing evidences suggest greater research efforts in this area are required. There is need to identify the gaps between the adoption of techniques of organic farming and remove them by strengthening production-consumption and marketing linkages. Moreover, it is important to assess and analyze the status of organic farming and feasibility to different sustainable practices in different production systems and farming situations across the country for promotion of this value added entrepreneurship.

Keywords: organic farming, status, constraints, entrepreneurship and socio-economic dynamics

Abstract

Biochar is the product of thermal degradation of organic materials in the absence of air (pyrolysis), and is distinguished from charcoal by its use as a soil amendment. Biochar is generally alkaline in pH and may increase soil pH with greater increase observed in sandy and loamy soils than in clayey soils. Biochar addition can increase cation exchange capacity, base saturation, exchangeable bases and organic carbon content as well as decreases in Al saturation in acid soils. Biochar enhances soil productivity by improving the physical, chemical and biological soil conditions. Improvement in soil structure increase soil water retention. A comparative study of soil fertility and leaching losses of nutrients between an Anthrosol and an adjacent unamended Ferralsols revealed that the Anthrasol had significantly higher P, Ca, Mn and Zn availability than the Ferralsol, and an increased biomass of both cowpea and rice by 38–45% without fertilization. More experimentation is needed to substantiate multiple benefits of biochar application in relevant soil-environment-climate-management factors and minimize any possible drawbacks in Indian perspective. Efficient use of biochar in agricultural system is one viable option that can enhance natural rates of carbon sequestration in the soil, reduce farm waste, enhance crop yield with concomitant improvement in soil quality.

Abstract

The J&K state, like other Himalayan states, is endowed with varied climates and agro-climatic situations and has the potential for improvement in a horticulture sector. Focus on selective issues based on the niches of the areas , strengthening the on-going programs of different developmental departments, site specific issues, backed up with latest technologies need to be identified which can have tangible and immediate impact on the farm economy. The horticulture section is doing well in Jammu and Kashmir state when compared with others food crops, since it fetches good price because of its nature of seasonality. The estimation of the potential profits can be drawn by the fact that a farmer producing wheat of 1 kg gets 10 times higher prices for the same produce in horticulture section. Considering this high potential, the concept of doubling farmer’s income can work magically with horticultural crops. There is a need of shift from traditional crops and cropping patterns. Technological interventions are required to strengthen the conditions of cold storage, adoption of farming system approach, instead of cropping system approach, incorporating element of diversification, promotion of cultivation of high value crops, efficient post-harvest management, value addition etc. popularization of technologies and schemes to achieve targeted growth in horticulture. Strengthening water resources through rainwater harvesting, soil moisture conservation and efficient utilization of stored/conserved rain water (micro-irrigation, fertigation). Promotion of niche commodities based on agro-ecological situations will benefit promotional efforts in horticulture development with increased benefit cost ratio.

Abstract

Worldwide trend in fruit crops has shifted to high density or meadow orcharding to manage tree size for desired architecture to allow better light interception and easy in operations such as pruning, pest control and harvesting. The meadow orcharding facilitates increase production as well as quality of fruits. High density planting (HDP) is one of the recent and novel concepts of increasing the productivity without affecting the quality of fruits. The HDP has been successfully demonstrated in fruit crops such as apple, mango, citrus, banana, pineapple and guava. However, for more location specific benefit research must continue on appropriate plant canopy, integrated nutrient management suitable varieties, ageing of orchard and tree replacement. HDP accommodates more number of trees per unit area ranging from 500-10,000 plants/ha depending on the type of fruit crop and the level of density such as medium high density 500-1500 plants/ha, optimum high density 1,500-10,000 plants/ha ultra-high density 10,000-1,00,000 plants/ha. High density orcharding is a highly technical entrepreneurship where nutrient management, irrigation and canopy management practices widely vary from traditional orchards hence growers must have full execution knowledge of this technology in present as well as future perspective. Post harvest, storage and marketing are closely associated with the success of HDP technology. Fruit yield increases 2 to 4 times vertically enhancing income of fruit growers.

Abstract

Seed priming is the innovative way of ensuring optimum germination and plant stand under moisture deficit situations. It enables the seed to tide over initial stress from biotic and abiotic factors. Higher yield with better quality seed are reported. The seeds of agronomic and horticultural crops are significantly affected by ageing and deterioration. Reversal or rejuvenation of aged seeds is therefore of primary interest. Experiments related to reversal of seed deterioration effects due to ageing relying heavily on accelerated ageing (AA) of seeds and their priming using various priming agents especially osmotic substances. Repair during germination is a hypothetical event supported by some investigators and questioned by others. Repair includes the spontaneous reorganization of plasma membrane phospholipids, which occurs during seed hydration. Alternatively or additionally, metabolic repair might occur. Experimental evidence for repair in imbibed seeds has been elusive. Priming reduced electrolyte leakage as well as lipid peroxidation in seeds implying the activation of membrane repair processes. Priming was also associated with increased levels of antioxidants like ascorbic acid and tocopherols particularly the latter and the activities of enzymes SOD, CAT POX involved in the mitigation of oxidative damage. In comparison with the priming of unaged seeds, the aged seeds experienced a diminution of response in terms of changes in the levels of antioxidants and scavenging enzymes. Thus, seed priming technique under climate extremities seems the best and economical means to sustain higher crop yields. The technique needs to be popularized among the farmers practicing agriculture and horticulture under rainfed situation so as to sustain production under climatic adversaries and enhance livelihood security and more profitability at the farm.

Abstract

Doubling the farmers’ income”, implies a 100 per cent growth of the current level of income of the farmers within a specific time frame, through multifaceted efforts of technological advancements in agriculture, policy formulation/ implementation, and efficient market system. The idea of doubling the farmers’ income during seven year period has by many experts been deemed impractical owing to the fact that a consistent annual growth rate of 14.86 per cent would be required in agricultural sector to double its GDP which has never had any history in the Indian agriculture. Some experts point out the possibility of success through appropriate technological intervention and viable government policies specific for each of the agro ecological zones of the nation. Increase in the farmer’s income doesn’t imply increase in nominal income through excessive production, but increase in real income, taking inflation into account. Production technologies, their use and impact are important factors to focus on doubling the farmers’ income. These technologies are already available across all the regions of the country but their adoption remains a problem to discuss always and partial adoption of the technological package can never be expected to get the desired results on ground. The results are suggestive of the pent up need to focus on the extension support on end-to-end approach from production to marketing with appropriate facilitation for inputs, insurance, credit, storage, marketing facilities etc. However, it would need involvement of all the stakeholders to come up on board to pursue this goal.

Abstract

Parasitic diseases are of great economic importance in livestock farming and are major obstacle in the health and productivity of animals. These may be due to endo-parasites that live inside the body or ecto-parasites such as ticks, mites, flies, fleas, midges, etc., which attack the body surface. Among ecto-parasites, ticks and mites are very important and harmful blood sucking external parasites of mammals. Blood sucking by large numbers of ticks causes reduction in body weight and anemia among domestic animals, while their bites also reduce the quality of hides. More than 250 species of mites can cause problems for humans and domestic animals because of their being vector for zoonotic diseases. Their attack may lead to problems of temporary irritation of the skin due to bites, persistent dermatitis due to mites invading skin or hair follicles, mite-induced allergies, transmission of pathogenic microbial agents, intermediate host of tapeworms, invading respiratory passages, ear canals and internal organs, fear of mites called acarophobia The economic or medical importance of the Acari increases with their ability to be vector for viruses, rickettsiae, spirochaetes, phytoplasmas, mycoplasmas and protozoa, or to harbor and transport nematodes, bacteria and fungi pathogens that affect plants, domestic and wild animals and humans. Ectoparasites were not considered serious problem till the introduction of exotic animals or exotic semen in India as the indigenous breeds were considered resistant to parasites and the damages occurred by them were totally ignored. Much awareness was not there about the diseases caused by ectoparasites like anaplasmosis therefore dairy producers had to bear losses both, in milk production and proper animal growth. Ectoparasites may be causing death of animals in certain cases. Losses in dairy, poultry, goatry and other livestock farming can be considerably reduced through strategic management of parasites. This needs timely detection, identification and development of effective control measures. 10-30% production losses are estimated by parasitic infestation. If profitability is the goal in livestock entrepreneurship then target has to be the animal health, productivity and quality produce through strategic management and awareness campaign on economic importance of parasites.

Abstract

Climate change is well acknowledged fact globally and in India has been witnessed with more frequent cloud bursts, highly variable frequency and distribution of rainfall, high seasonal thermal variations, receding glaciers and unstable agricultural production. Likely impact of climate change is expected to reduce agricultural productivity, production stability and incomes in some areas that already have high levels of food insecurity. However, Agriculture has the potential to retard the pace of climate change by capturing a significant part of the excess atmospheric carbon in the soil and plants in the form of organic matter and also competent to reduce emissions of nitrous oxide and methane if practiced in smart ways so developing climate-smart agriculture is thus crucial in achieving future food security and climate change goals. Transformations are needed in both commercial and subsistence agricultural systems, but with significant differences in priorities and capacity. Several climate smart agriculture practices such as cropping system improvement (e. g. crop rotation, diversification, improved varieties and integration of legumes), integrated nutrient management (e.g. green manure, compost and site specific nutrient management), resource conservation (e.g. minimum/zero tillage, keeping the land consistently covered with crop residues), precision water management (e.g. planting crops in bed, laser land leveling, mulching with crop residues) and agro-forestry have been proposed for adaptation to climate change and variability. However, their adoption decisions by the farmers are largely dependent on economic benefits associated with the interventions. It should be clearly understood that climate smart agriculture does not make use of different practices but certainly it uses them differently.

Abstract

ICT is contributing in every sphere of human society and agriculture cannot be an exception. It can bring revolutionary changes in farmers’ life by improving accessibility to information and knowledge. Farmers certainly feel empowered and with confidence can opt for innovative approaches in business farming. Nearly 70 percent of the bottom fifth of the population in developing countries own a mobile phone. The number of internet users has more than tripled in a decade, from 1 billion in 2005 to an estimated 3.2 billion at the end of 2015. Thus, ICTs provide faster and newer ways of delivering and accessing information to many and are potential tools for poverty alleviation, health, education, judiciary, agricultural marketing and sustainable development. As per an ICAR report 80 per cent of the technologies generated by the researchers in agricultural sector are either not transferred to the ultimate users or they do not find applicability in the farmer’s field. Out of the remaining 20 per cent of the technologies, around 50 per cent do not impress the farmers due to mainly its ineffective technology transfer that range from language to effective demonstration using the available tools. Information and communication technology revolution is the latest milestone in Indian agriculture that can usher an era of knowledge flow from institution to farmers field in much systematic and organized way and eliminate hurdles in technology transfer and adoption. From the perspective of agricultural knowledge and information systems (AKIS), ICTs can be seen as useful in improving linkages between the research, extension and the market sub systems. Real-time information and customized knowledge provided by ‘eChoupal’ enhance the ability of farmers to take decisions and align their farm output with market demand and secure quality and productivity. The eKrishi project, Market driven Agricultural Initiative through IT enabled Agri-business Centres in Kerala, addresses the existing gap in agriculture information flow and transaction management. The touch screen kiosk with information on cattle health was tried and tested under a United Kingdom Department of International Development (DFID) – Animal Health Program (AHP) supported project on dissemination of animal health knowledge for development of landless dairy cattle owners in the peri-urban regions of Pondicherry. Being a global resource, and with billions of users, the Internet requires some degree of international cooperation on technical matters as well as on standards and norms that can ensure that it remains a global public good, facilitating information flows and contributing towards sustainable development.

Abstract

The global economic burden due to zoonotic diseases is very high. According to a recent World Bank estimate, the economic burden due to six of the zoonotic diseases that have occurred in specific countries between 1997 and 2009 is estimated to be US$80 billion. In a worst-case scenario, potential losses from a pandemic influenza outbreak could be US$3 trillion, which is equivalent to 5% of the global GDP. Zoonotic diseases continue to represent an important health hazard in most parts of the world. More than 200 zoonotic diseases have been described, caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses, fungi and unconventional agents (e.g. prions). About 75 percent of the new diseases that have affected humans over the past ten years are caused by pathogens originating from animals or from products of animal origin. Many of these diseases have the potential to spread by various means over long distances and to become global problems. India contributes to substantial portion of the global burden of endemic zoonoses and is one of the several ‘EID hotspots’. The quality and safety of food supplies are put at risk by demands for more, cheaper food, driven by growing population and increasing urbanization, combined with a lack of resources to deal with issues related to food safety and lower or less rigorously enforced regulatory standards add to spread of zoonotic diseases. Human and financial resources that are dedicated by national authorities to the support of regulatory and non-regulatory food safety programs generally fall well short of needs. Commonly, many of the resources available are used for quality control of food for export, rather than products for domestic consumption, leaving the domestic market more vulnerable to unacceptable levels of food safety hazards, thus adding to the problem. In many developing countries, there is a substantial informal market that generally escapes any food safety controls. The successful control of zoonoses is possible if acceptable standards of life and social welfare are observed in developing country like India. Close cooperation and interaction between veterinarians, health physicians and public health operators, agriculturists and ecologists is thus necessary via one health approach strategy facilitating interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans, animals and the environment.

Abstract

Indian agriculture is undergoing rapid transformation and agricultural-based food industry in India requires timely and adequate supply of good quality raw material for processing, value addition and export. The recent growth and diversification of consumer demand and the expansion of organized agricultural processing and marketing ventures in India has the potential to boost the market opportunities, productivity, and incomes of farmers, including that of marginal and small holders. However, achieving these goals will likely require creation of new institutions and innovations to develop supply chains and facilitate linkages between farmers, wholesalers, processors, and retailers. Among these institutions and innovations are various models of contract farming, including those led by cooperatives, by farmer groups, and by various types of private sector resource intermediation that develop backward linkages to growers. Contract farming is a system where agricultural production is carried out according to an agreement between a buyer and farmers, which establishes conditions for the production and marketing of a farm product or products. In other words Contract Farming is a system of production and supply of agricultural/horticultural produce under forward contracts between producers/ suppliers and buyers. The essence of such an arrangement is the commitment of the producer to provide an agricultural commodity of a certain type, at a time and a price, and in a quantity required by a known and committed buyer. Well-managed contract farming is an effective approach to help solve many of the market linkage and access problems of small and marginal farmers which constitute 86% of the farming households in India. This chapter examines growth and status including the performance of different models of contract farming based on empirical studies. It concludes that by entering into the contractual arrangement, the income level of the farmer and employment level in the rural economy has increased despite certain problems faced by the farmers like delayed payment, delay in procurement and low supply of agricultural inputs to them.

Abstract

With its core intention to raise economic status of farmers, Govt of India vows for transformation in agriculture and sets goal to double farmers’ income by 2022. Nonetheless, net income increase at the farm is amalgamation of technologies, tactics and government policies. Farmers realized 3-4 times increment in their profit during era of green revolution when high yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers were introduced in early seventies. Subsequently income enhancement of the farmers continued through raising of farm productivity per unit area and entrepreneurship. Thus Indian agriculture experienced transformation through chemical fertilizers, high yielding varieties, synthetic pesticides, off-season cultivation, high yielding breeds, export orientation and entrepreneurship development in food processing, mushroom production, dairying and poultry. With the result, India emerged as top producer of milk, millets, pomegranate, banana, mango, jute, pulses, okra, safflower etc and second top producer of wheat, rice, tea, tomato, potato, onion etc and third in egg production and fourth in poultry meat. Consequence was evolution of commercial farming from subsistence farming. In era of globalization and increased purchase power of consumers, profitability at the farm has become subject of competitiveness, quality and consumer preference. Price shoot-up and market crashing of commodities in the country has made agriculture, a profession of risk, uncertainties and unpredictability. It has thus, lost creditability of socioeconomic security. To make it remunerative and attractive, a combo plan of transformational technologies that has the competence to break production and productivity barriers and can also address market needs as well as consumer preferences is highly wanted. There is urgent need to infuse characteristic of market orientation in agriculture through marketing information system and promoting demand driven production system with focus on zonalization of crops taking advantage of niche area or geographical indications. Commodity supply must remain high through promotion of climate resilient varieties or breeds, mechanization, adoption of hi-tech crop and livestock management practices. All this has to be made sustainable by way of produce and product diversification through integrated farming system, organic agriculture and secondary agriculture. Considering future vision, research initiatives must continue on noble areas like vertical farming and in vitro farming. Information and communication technologies will open avenue for assured marketing by linking production to consumption system via proper marketing and distribution leading to increased farm profitability. This as a whole will make transformation in agriculture a reality.

Abstract

Indian agriculture witnessed a transformation in early seventies with green revolution in cereals. The Green Revolution resulted in a record grain output of 131 million tons in 1978-79. Yield per unit of farmland improved by more than 30 per cent between 1947 and 1979. This was because of introduction of high yielding varieties and use of agro-chemicals, particularly synthetic fertilizers. Farmers realized 3-4 times increment in their profit when high yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers were used in integration. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of India’s population. Gross Value Added by agriculture, forestry and fishing is estimated at Rs 17.67 trillion (US$ 274.23 billion) in FY18. The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth, increasing its contribution to world food trade every year due to its immense potential for value addition, particularly within the food processing industry. Food & Grocery retail market in India was worth US$ 380 billion in 2017, is the world’s sixth largest, with retail contributing 70 per cent of the sales. The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of the country’s total food market, one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth. It contributes around 8.80 and 8.39 per cent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in Manufacturing and Agriculture respectively, 13 per cent of India’s exports and six per cent of total industrial investment. During 2017-18, food grain production is estimated at 279.51 million tons, with rice and wheat production in the country at 111.52 MT and 98.61 MT, respectively in the same period. Milk production stands at 165.4 million tons during FY17, while meat production is 7.4 million tons. India is the second largest fruit producer in the world. Production of horticulture crops is estimated at record 307.16 million tons (mt) in 2017-18 as per second advance estimates. Total agricultural exports from India grew at a CAGR of 16.45 per cent over FY10-18 to reach US$ 38.21 billion in FY18. In April-May 2018 agriculture exports were US$ 6.43 billion. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products. Spice exports from India reached US$ 3.1 billion in 2017-18. Tea exports from India reached a 36 year high of 240.68 million kgs in CY 2017 while coffee exports reached record 395,000 tons in 2017-18.

Abstract

India today has 1.30 billion people and would be the world’s most populous country by 2025. The challenge is how to feed India’s growing population with rising income, but limited land and water resources. Whereas area under crop cultivation has come down from 142 million ha to 138 million ha, asking for protecting the arable lands from mass urbanization and more productivity per unit area. The agricultural production systems are still operating at low productivity and high uncertainty in the country. There is little or no alignment between production, the growth of agricultural commodities in the market and the supply of these commodities. All this leading to considerable farm produce wastage, mounting tremendous pressure on natural resources and would pose a challenge to the country in providing food, water, health, shelter, sanitation and jobs to all.

While industry and services have grown, agricultural sector has lagged behind. Information technology sector is growing consistently at 30 per cent every year but agriculture has not even achieved 4 per cent growth. The contribution of agricultural sector to national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has continued to decline over the years; has shrunk from 55 per cent in 1951-52 to 14.6 per cent in 2015-16. Land fragmentation, reducing holding size, obscure marketing prospects, low water and inputs use efficiencies, modest level of mechanization, unorganization, unreliable returns from rainfed areas, inadequate storage infrastructure, weak processing sector and meagre investments continue to leave visible impressions on Indian agriculture. Nonetheless, agriculture remains a major source of employment, absorbing about 52 per cent of the total national workforce. Higher levels of investments in agriculture, both by the public and private sector can yield much better results if the reforms are undertaken to streamline not only the incentive structures for the farmers, but also the institutional framework to address the issues of integration, export orientation, infrastructure development, and information technology and management to achieve the objective of a innovative agricultural sector capable of providing food security to all. Farmer insecurity about crop failure also prevents them from adopting changes. A balance between risk and reward is considered to be an important economic factor for enhancing relationships. Trust among channel partners, power share and interdependence are other important factors for enhancing relationships in the supply chain system.

8.1. Vegetables

8.1.1. Tomato (Lycopsarsicon Esculentum)

Temperature: A warm climate crop can tolerate high temperature but cannot withstand frost. Minimum temperature for germination of seed is 8 to 10°C. Night temperature for fruit setting is 12 to 22°C. Critical night temperature for fruit setting is below 12°C. Critical day temperature for fruit setting is above 32°C. If the greenhouse can maintain the temperature as mentioned above then the non-terminal or indeterminate tomato crop can be grown for 10 to 12 month duration.

Variety: Indeterminate (producing flowers and fruits continuously along the stem as it grows) hybrid varieties resistant to nematodes or fusarium or verticilium wilt disease may be selected.

7.1. Introduction

Cultivation of crop is one of the most important aspects on which the success of a greenhouse depends. Principally it is similar to that of open field cultivation; but it is a completely different proposition in comparison. In greenhouse it needs (1) high precision technology, (2) special management, and (3) high qualityinputs. A special crop husbandry is extremely necessary, integrating all these three aspects, for successful greenhouse cultivation.

Why special crop husbandry? – Ancestors of each and every crop of modern time once grew out of its own in wild, without any human intervention. Gradually it has been domesticated or brought under cultivation by progressive alteration of its natural growing and reproduction process. Even the genetic nature also altered gradually. Till recent past these development of domestication process has been restricted principally on reproduction, planting, nutrient supply, water supply, and plant protection aspects. Interestingly most of these aspects are still very much supplementary in nature, as a good percent of it is still dependent on nature and its growing system.Actually, we cannot confer any significant change, physically or genetically, in their adaptation against the natural elements like rain, sunlight, temperature, humidity, gas supply, etc. However, we try our level best with a compromising note on local climate.

Hence there is ample scope to go for complete alteration of their growing habit/ practices in relation to each and every aspect of the climatic elements. It is a very difficult job, because, for a small change in any individual aspect of plant growth, all the other aspects are affected. Thus, one has to make a proper and holistic balance of alteration of all the growth aspects for each and every individual domesticated plant, we call as crop.

The greenhouse technology is all about the controlling of ambient climatic factors to create a favourable ‘micro-climate’ for the crop growth. The magnitude of such control may differ from minimal to maximum. It may control single (like rain) to multiple aspects (like rain, temperature, humidity, sun-light, wind, carbon-di-oxide, etc in combination). It can simply be done by manipulating natural factors using the suitable/appropriate design of the greenhouse or can be done in complex form by using/installing different devices and packages (may be software) with necessary automation in a specifically designed greenhouse.

It is a vast subject and very difficult to have a thumb-rule for such climate control mechanism due to seasonal climatic variations and most importantly due to the inter-relation effect between each and every climatic factors. Thus, it should be given sufficient space to maneuver the mechanism designed for a specific greenhouse targeting a specific crop.

Ways to control these climatic factors in a greenhouse

There are two basic ways to control the climate inside greenhouse.

Primarily, through a suitable design of the greenhouse itself, the inside microclimate can be controlled, obviously up to a certain level. Through manipulation of the design, particularly the naturally ventilated system, the rain water, temperature, humidity, CO_2, wind, etc can be controlled up to a certain level in favour of the crop.

Secondarily, by introducing equipments, tools, devices, etc we can control the micro-climate of a greenhouse. In most cases, it can take care of a number of climatic factors, like temperature and humidity, sun-light and temperature, etc simultaneously to provide a crop-wise micro-climate inside.

Frequently we use both the basic controlling methods, in combination, to achieve the required climate control system in a particular greenhouse.

We have already discussed about the different climatic factors that affect the crop micro-climate. Now we will discuss the basic control mechanism of each and every climatic factors and the related technology that can be utilized for greenhouse.

5.1. Introduction

Back drop: Since the concept of greenhouse technology was introduced, metal and wooden structures were tried in different parts of the world. When greenhouse was brought in the tropical and sub-tropical areas, people tried bamboo as construction material for greenhouse instead of iron or wood. However, due to the non-standard character of bamboo, the standardization of design of bamboo greenhouse, as a model, was not possible. Actually all such designs were very much clumsy and not at all comparable to the well established models of greenhouse having metal or wood frame.

Hence it is an urgent call to establish a standard design of bamboo greenhouse that can efficiently compete with the other common & commercial greenhouses made-up of GI-pipes.

Innovation: This greenhouse is structured by matured, cured & treated bamboo instead of usual structural elements (GI/MS/wood). For that matter (1) innovated design and construction methods and (2) a new curing method has been generated. It is very tough to standardize the design of bamboo greenhouses, specifically due to the non-standardized nature of bamboo. Unlike GI/MS pipe etc, bamboos do not have the same dimensions and uniformity in size & shape (diameter/ width/thickness etc). Thus, in general, bamboo greenhouses are low in height and are of naturally ventilated type. However, there is still huge scope to work on design of bamboo greenhouse for different climatic situation to avail the benefits of its natural advantages and low cost.

Design and Construction of a greenhouse involves five distinctly different aspects viz. (a) Basic form or type, (b) structure/designs, (c) covering materials and its fixing, (d) foundation and constructional detail, and (e) crop-support, irrigation and drainage planning.

All the above aspects are interlinked. To have a clear idea, these individual aspects are discussed separately.

4.1. Basic Forms of Greenhouse

Before considering anything about construction, one should finalize the form of construction. There are different forms of greenhouses for different climatic and crop situations. These types of structures are planned according to the requirement of farmer/promoter and obviously according to the purpose. Now we will describe, in brief, some of the important form or type of greenhouses.

4.1.1. Greenhouse covered with transparent and impervious material

These structures are covered with water/rain impermeable transparent materials which allow necessary solar radiation for optimal growth of plants. Simultaneously it protects crops from temperature-fluctuation, rain, wind, and creates a favourable situation in respect of CO₂ and humidity. This covering is also used to prevent the re-radiation of heat energy and conserve the heat generated in daytime to raise night temperature inside.

3.1. Non-Climatic Factors

Apart from climate several other non-climatic factors has to be considered before selection of proper greenhouse technology, which are listed in the following text.

1. Location and selection of site: The ideal location for greenhouse cultivation is an area having moderate climate with high sunlight, low humidity and good natural drainage. It is better to avoid storm prone areas or it is a must to take necessary protection, like wind-break and shelter belt, in such areas. However, selection of site, where the greenhouse will be constructed, is the first consideration to select the proper greenhouse technology. The proper selection of site will also depend upon various non-technical factors, which are listed below.

2.1. What is Greenhouse Technology?

Greenhouse technology involves primarily the structural design that can take care of climate control mechanisms to create proper micro-crop-climate and secondarily it involves the technology needed for optimum growth and production of crop grown under this structure. Combination of these two aspects may be expressed as ‘greenhouse technology’.

So the ‘greenhouse technology’ may be defined as “The technology required to built a structure, covered fully, partly or porously for manipulating the inside climatic conditions, under which crops/plants can be grown with special measures”.

1.1. History of Cultivation

Prehistoric people lived as hunters and gatherers. About ten thousand years since now they unveiled the mystery of germination and engaged themselves in production of plant from seed. Since then it was practiced in the open field fully exposed to sun, rainfall, ambient temperature & humidity, etc. Gradually, with the development of society, they improved the package of practice and became accustomed to produce better crop in accordance with these natural conditions.

Backdrop of modern agriculture technology: Since the late 19^th century, population all over the world increased rapidly, which demanded more food production. This situation prompted crop production as a profitable business. New scientific inventions were incorporated in farming practices to increase the production per unit area (yield). On the other hand, repeated cultivation of same or similar crops in the same land, year after years, gradually reduced the productivity of soil. Hence, need arose for increase of crop yield through further improvement in farming technology.

First-phase development: The incorporation of ‘chemicals’ into the soil as plant nutrients(fertilizers) coupled with the use of ‘high-yielding varieties’ changed the scenario of crop production in the sixties of last century. This, along with ‘mechanization’, increased crop yield many-fold and helped to bring large areas under the plough. Countries, which developed these technologies, made good amount of money/profit from this development. Gradually, the rest of the world adopted or purchased these technologies particularly to meet up the rising demand of food in their respective country.

Subsequent problem: This systemof cultivation solvedthe food scarcity problem initially but use of chemicals, cultivation of similar crop over a large area etc. destroyed the agro- ecological balance. These technological developments, coupled with adoption of labour saving technologies, gradually created problems like gradual loss of soil health, lowering of nutrient-use-efficiency and subsequent yield. This invited severe attack of pests like insect, disease, weed and related social problem like unemployment.

Among abiotic stresses, low and high temperature stress is very critical for determining the agricultural production. Plants exhibit a maximum rate of growth and development at an optimum temperature or over a diurnal range of temperatures (Fitter and Hay, 1981). When ambient temperature deviates from optimal, physiological, biochemical, metabolic and molecular changes occur within plants. This is an effort of plants to maximize growth and developmental processes and to maintain cellular homeostasis during such adverse conditions. Under increasingly stressful conditions, plants experience progressively more abnormal, impaired or dysfunctional cellular and whole-plant processes until the cardinal temperatures for survival are reached (Fitter and Hay, 1981). At the extremes of the natural temperature range of a plant, the degree of physiological, cellular, metabolic and molecular dysfunction becomes so severe that it leads to death.

Growth constraints and stress result in significant crop losses and therefore the mechanisms underlying endurance and adaptation to these changes have long been the focus of intense research (Bray 2004). Kültz (2005) elaborated two types of responses to a particular kind of stress:

Vegetable crops, known as protective foods, are important for the healthy diet providing vitamins, minerals, fibre, amino acids and other bioactive compounds. Improvement in vegetable crops is inevitable for better yield, pest or disease resistance, morphological characters, nutritive quality, to adapt with environmental stress, climate change, offseason production, satisfying varying consumer preference etc. Vegetable crops comprise of a large number of species and are rich in diversity. Diverse genetic resources are pre-requisite for any crop improvement programme and vegetable improvement is carried out using exotic introductions, indigenous collection and hybrids/varieties by different breeding systems. Characterisation of genotypes is the description of germplasm giving information on heritable characters so that promising one can be utilised in breeding programme which is the best option for higher yield and other qualities. The morphological, physiological and molecular (biochemical and DNA) traits are called qualitative descriptor and yield, pest/disease resistance, stress tolerance etc are quantitative descriptors that are easily influenced by the environment factors. Apart from the higher production and resistance to biotic and abiotic factors, nutritional traits, flavour, processing qualities that increase the food value is also important in improvement programme of fruits as well as vegetables.

Genetic resources of vegetables available at international and national levels are characterised, evaluated and conserved. With the high diversity of vegetable crops, characterisation and evaluation of genetic resources become a stupendous responsibility requiring extensive infrastructure facilities and varying methods of evaluation (Srivastva, 2012). Genetic resources are characterised on highly heritable traits expressed across the environment. Apart from morphological characterisation, biochemical and molecular characterisation is also conducted that are useful for the identification of biotic and abiotic stress parameters, nutritional and processing quality. Genotype characterisation can be done efficiently using potential of biochemical and molecular markers that help to set up the breeding programme.

Genetic diversity is one of the fundamental character present in any population or species. It is the total variation either phenotypic or genotypic which have occured in a population through due course of evolution. Variation in any species depends on mutation, substitution (insertion/deletion) and response to selection. However, comprehensive studies on theoretical and empirical perspectives for diversity analysis may be found by evolutionary biologists to understand the factor that influences levels of genetic diversity in natural population (Lewontin, 1974). In brief, nucleotides/ protein codes are the basic unit to quantify total amount of variation. Bioinformatic tools and techniques help us to measure inferring relationships between genes, proteins or organisms through use of these DNA/protein sequences by integration of mathematical algorithms, statistical and computer databases.

Diversity analysis is popularly known as phylogenetic analysis in bioinformatic terms. The basic principle of phylogeny is analysis/alignment of characters; whether it is morphological or molecular data. For instance, in case of morphological data of a crop species, the leaf colour/stem colour/fruit colour/grain size etc. may be compared however sequence data is problem of interest for molecular phylogeny. The evolutionary history of any crop species/ organisms inferred from phylogeny analysis mostly depicted through treelike diagrams/ dendrograms. In this chapter, phylogenetic analysis based on only nucleotide/protein sequences are discussed. For analysis of phylogenetics, default assumptions (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2006) are:

INTRODUCTION

Genetic engineering (GE) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) provide powerful tools for sustainable development in agriculture, healthcare and many other industries. GMOs are those which were genetically engineered in a laboratory by incorporating a small foreign DNA fragment carrying a gene of interest into the native DNA of the organism. The foreign gene is attached with the necessary regulatory elements to help its expression in the new genetic environment. Genetically modified (GM) crops currently account for some 16 percent of the world’s land planted with soybean, maize, cotton and canola. The global demand for food is increasing because of the growing world population and decreasing arable land. At the same time food and agricultural systems have to respond to several changes such as increasing international competition, globalization and rising consumer demands for improved food quality, safety, health enhancement and convenience. Modern biotechnology involving the use of rDNA technology/genetic engineering has emerged as a powerful tool with many potential application for improving the quantity and quality of food supply. Foods derived from genetically modified crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified food and food ingredients have already become available worldwide with aim of enhancing productivity, decreasing the use of certain agricultural chemicals, modifying the inherent properties of crops, improving the nutritional value or even increasing shelf life. Results of DNA modification may not be limited only to the particular characteristics of the replaced gene. It is therefore important to ensure that when these organisms are released into nature they do not harm the environment or human health [EFSA, 2006]. Such concerns have led to broader interests in the theme of risk assessment in the release of GMOs. A cautious approach is necessary to assess environmental risks which may occur due to introduction of recombinant organisms in the natural environment [Johnson et al., 2007].

Intellectual property: It can be defined as creations of intellectual brain which has value, utility/application in the society and can be traded in commerce for economic benefits.

Significance of Intellectual Property: The significance of protection of Intellectual Property has been realized for wealth and value creation in a knowledge-based economy. The agricultural scientists are comparatively little aware of IPR issues because their primary mandate has always been the free delivery of technology to the end users particularly the farmers. After the implementation of TRIPS Agreement during 1995, the worldwide focus of scientists and planners was shifted on the development of time appropriate technologies, protection of inventions/ technologies and real time technology transfer through licensing for industrial and agricultural growth leading to overall economic development. Under the changing scenario of global trade, where national governments are entering into bilateral agreements for tackling IPR issues to promote trade, agricultural scientists must also look for managing their intellectual properties in tune with the existing IP legislation of the country.

The Indian centre of origin and diversity of cultivated plants represent an outstandingly rich reservoir of nature’s wealth of plant species which include a large number of economically important species including Vegetable Crops. Common vegetables like okra and brinjal are native to this region. Out of the recorded 110 genera and 640 species of cucurbits, 100 species representing 36 genera occur in India. Twenty of these species are endemic. Adoption of high yielding crop varieties and hybrids along with changing land use patterns have led to rapid replacement of native cultivars in most cases. Conserving and sustainable utilization of locally adapted types and primitive landraces are, hence, now major concerns at the national and global levels.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) at New Delhi is the nodal organization in India with the national mandate to plan, conduct, promote and coordinate all activities concerning plant exploration and collection, germ plasm import and exchange, plant quarantine, germplasm multiplication and distribution, evaluation and characterization, documentation and conservation of both indigenous and introduced genetic variability in cultivated plants and their wild relatives.

The challenging job of collecting, genetic evaluation and utilization of plant genetic resources cannot be satisfactorily accomplished by one organization. The enormous task of safeguarding and promoting greater utilization of these valuable resources can be best achieved through a networking approach. Professional development is the key to success of this endeavour. NBPGR organizes regularly short-term training courses on various aspects of PGR to impart latest knowledge and techniques to scientists and technicians engaged in crop improvement programmes and handling germpalsm collections.

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Plant genetic resources represent both the basis for agricultural development and a reservoir of genetic adaptability that acts as a buffer against environmental changes. The erosion of these resources threatens world food security. From an agricultural utilitarian standpoint, plant genetic resources can be considered limited and perishable natural resources. PGR forms a distinct group and include all plant species, which contribute to people livelihoods by providing food, medicine, feed for domestic animals, fibres, clothing, shelter, energy and other uses and are subject to cultivation by man as well as the wild relatives of these species. Genetic diversity simply means all the variety of genes that exist in a particular variety or species. They provide the raw material (genes) which, when used and combined in the right way, produce new and better plant varieties, and are an irreplaceable source of such characteristics as resistance to disease, local adaptation, and productivity. Plant genetic resources are now, and will continue to be in the future, of inestimable value independently of whether scientists use them by means of conventional plant breeding or modern genetic engineering. These genes are dispersed throughout local cultivars and natural plant populations that have been selected over thousands of years by farmers and nature for their characteristics of adaptation, resistance and/or productivity. The road to a continuous increase in the production and quality of food lies through the protection and efficient utilization of plant genetic resources; this requires their conservation, evaluation, documentation and exchange.

Plant biodiversity is the single greatest resource that man garnered from nature during the long cultural development phase. More than 2.5 lakh species of mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants and more than 50,000 plant species are yet to be documented, primarily in the remote and less studied reaches of tropical forests.

Vegetable crops in which rich diversity occurs in India are Cowpea, Common bean, Cole crops, Okra, Brinjal, Sweet potato, Taros, Yams, Sword bean, Velvet bean and Elephant foot yam. Wide diversity was observed in chives, leeks and other Allium spp in Kumaoun and Garhwal Himalayas; cluster bean in Western arid zone; lab lab bean in Deccan plateau; cucurbits in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and leaf vegetables like Amaranth and Fagopyrum in Western Himalayan region. Tropical vegetables consist of solanaceus fruits (tomato, hot pepper, brinjal), cucurbits (water melon, muskmelon, cucumber, pumpkins and squashes, bottle gourd, chow-chow, ivy gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, round gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd), malvaceous vegetables (Okra),legumes (common bean, lima bean, dolichos bean, cowpea, sword bean, winged bean), allium (onion, shallot, garlic, leek) and leaf vegetables (amaranth, spinach beet, Ceylon spinach). The indigenous vegetables both cultivated and wild have important role in household nutrition, economy and food security. There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan region are the most important ones. Indo-Myanmar region is one of the largest hot spots of the world and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like yams, taro, Amorphophallus and Alocasia. Tropical tuber crops form an important group of subsistence crops especially to those living in tropics and sub tropical zones. Tuber crops are the third important food crops after cereals and grain legumes. Major tuber crops are cassava, sweet potato, Asiatic yam, African yam, lesser yam, elephant foot yam, taro, tannia and country potato. Minor tuber crops are arrowroot, winged bean, yam bean, canna, safed musli and Jerusalem artichoke. Sweet potato is one of the world’s highest yielding crops.

Biodiversity is the origin of all species of crops and domesticated and the variety within them. It is also the foundation of ecosystem services essential to sustain agriculture and human well-being. Today’s crop and livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention. The biodiversity in vegetable crops is composed by the genetic diversity, as species diversity (inter specific diversity) and as diversity of genes within a species (intra specific diversity) referring to the vegetable grown varieties, and by the diversity of agro-ecosystems (agro-biodiversity).

Crop diversity is the variance in genetic and phenotypic characteristics of plants used in agriculture. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

8.1 Introduction

There are many theories that deal with the generation of innovations, their diffusion and adoption or non-adoption by the end users. Such theories include actor-network theory, knowledge systems and network theory, strategic niche management theory and adoption and diffusion of innovations theory (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971; Rogers, 1983, 1993, 2003). Among the different theories, the diffusion and adoption theory has achieved a prominent position in the field of anthropology, sociology, public health, medical sociology, communication, marketing and management, economics, public administration, industrial engineering, geography and many other disciplines all over the world for more than half a century. The main elements of diffusion of innovation as identified by Rogers (1962) are: i) An innovation, ii) Communication channels, iii) Time and iv) Social system. This shows that diffusion of any innovation will take place only if a new idea or practice exists which is accepted by an individual or a group of people over a period of time. The rate of diffusion depends upon the availability of communication channels and structure of the social system. But, in 1966, Fliegal and Kivlin complained that the diffusion of innovation has the status of a basted child with respect to parent’s interest in social and cultural change: Too big to ignore but unlikely to give full recognition.

The sustainable agricultural practices include integrated pest management (IPM), integrated nutrient management (INM), soil conservation and water management. However, there is not a single technological innovation were the innovator/company that commercializes a technology is not interested whether it is adopted/purchased by the consumer.

7.1 Introduction

In this chapter, process, outcome and impact evaluation of the vegetable integrated pest management programme (IPM) implemented in the subtropical area of the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state during 2008-09 and 2009-10 was studied. There are many research designs employed for impact evaluation. These include one group before and after comparison design, one group time-series design, non-equivalent control group design and ex-post facto research design. Social scientists most often used before and after IPM (longitudinal) comparisons, with and without IPM, and control group (latitudinal) comparisons, and a combination of the two (longitudinal and latitudinal). A robust measure of the impact of a programme, however, is the difference-in-differences (Ashenfelter and Card, 1985) quasi-experimental design, a statistical technique used in econometrics and quantitative sociology to determine the difference between the treatment (with) and control group (without) over time. The difference-in-differences quasi-experimental design, also called double difference (DD), used to compare the treatment (with IPM) and control group (without IPM) over time. The objective of our quasi-experimental empirical study was to determine the impact of the vegetable IPM programme on the adoption of non-chemical pest management practices, pesticide use, and field use environmental impact in the sub-tropical region of the J&K state. Difference-in-difference quasi-experimental control group design (with/without, before/after) was used to compare the changes before and after the IPM programme between the IPM trained farmers and the non-IPM farmers. The DD model was employed to identify the impact of the IPM programme on the adoption of non-pesticide IPM practices, pesticide use by weight (a.i.), pesticide use frequency, farmers’ knowledge regarding safe use and handling of the pesticides, and field use environmental impact to address the bias introduced by a non-random sampling procedure as the farmers from FFS were selected intentionally (Table 1). The DD model also eliminated the in-built, systematic or seasonal effects other than the training effect.

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the impact evaluation (summative) of the vegetable IPM programme that was conducted by the Central Integrated Pest Management Centre (CIPMC) Jammu in the sub-tropical areas of Jammu, Samba and Kathua districts. These districts were selected purposively as the maximum numbers of IPM-FFS were conducted by CIPMC in these three districts. Ex-post facto research design (with/without) was employed for conducting the impact evaluation of vegetable IPM-FFS programmes conducted between 2003-04 and 2007-08. This design uses a pre-existing situation as the treatment instead of actual manipulation of the variables. An ex post facto study uses a comparable site as the control to find the programme effects.

An Ex-post facto research is a systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulated. Inferences about relations among variables are made, without direct intervention, from co commitment variation of independent and dependent variables. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and independent variables. Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible and plausible relations and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables produce on a single or a set of dependent variables. The ex-post facto design was also used by Peshin and Kalra (1998); Reddy (2006); Maraddi et al., (2007) while evaluating the IPM programmes. The indicators for evaluation of the IPM-FFS programme were selected based on the requirements of the research design.

5.1 Introduction

A theoretical system is what we construct in one mind’s eye to model the empirical system. Theories and models provide the researcher concepts, definitions’, variables and hypothesis that may be tested by analyzing relevant data (Bhatia, 1990). A theory emerges from the research and so does a particular research pursuit from the theory. The theory is a set of interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explanation and predicting the phenomena (Kerlinger,1973). A researcher seldom conducts research without any concern for theory. A theory provides major orientation to research by helping to define the type of data to be collected and theory emerges from facts (data) collected during research. Theory and facts are not opposed but intervened, the theory is not speculation and scientists are concerned with theory as well as facts (Anonymous, 2011). It is possible to conduct evaluation without paying any attention to theory and forms of evaluation, but such evaluation studies lack internal validity because these are not based on the rigorous evaluation research methodologies (Campbell and Stanlay,1966). According to Alkin and Christie (2004), evaluation has grown on three pillars of orientation i.e. research orientation, decision making orientation and assessing worth. The field of evaluation research can be defined as “the use of scientific methods to measure the implementation and outcome of programmes for decision-making purposes” (Rutman, 1984). The concept of evaluation research has been an issue of debate among academicians. The academicians consider that evaluation research differs from both basic research as well as applied research (Douglah, 1998).