eChapters

The term extension is more recent in origin, and was first recorded in Britain in the 1840s in the context of ‘university extension’ or ‘extension of the university’. James Stuart, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who gave several lecturers to women’s associations and working man’s clubs in the north of England during 1867-68, is considered as father of extension. The term extension was derived from the practice of British universities of having one educational programme within the premises of the university and another away from the university buildings. The programme conducted outside the university was described as “extension education”. The expression connoted an extension of knowledge from the university to places and people far beyond. But, the term ‘Extension Education’ was formally used for the first time in 1873 by Cambridge University of England to describe system dedicated to the dissemination of knowledge to rural people where they lived and worked. Within a short time, the idea had spread to other parts of Britain, Europe and North America. Extension work is an out of school system of education in which adults and young people learn by doing. It is a partnership between the government, the land-grant institutions, and the people, which provides services and education designed to meet the needs of the people (Kelsey and Hearne, 1966). The meaning of the term ‘extension’ has changed over time, and has different meanings to different countries. The term ‘’Agricultural Extension” was adopted in 1914 when the United States Federal Smith-Lever Act of 1914 formalized a nationwide cooperative federal-state-county programme and gave operational responsibility for this to the land grant colleges and Universities. In the beginning, agricultural extension was concerned primarily with the improvement of agriculture, using conventional teaching methods. As time went on, home economics, youth programmes and rural community resource development were included. Agricultural extension spread to tropical Africa, the Caribbean, Asia and Latin America following the involvement of the United States of America (USA) in bilateral AID programmes after the Second World War.

This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts and processes that determine the structure and functioning of forest ecosystems. It examines forest ecosystem structure, different forest ecosystem types, community ecology, succession, population ecology, energy flow, and nutrient cycling. The chapter also addresses forest soil ecology, biodiversity, disturbances, climate change, and restoration ecology. Modern tools and sustainable forest management approaches are included to connect ecological principles with practical forest management. By integrating ecosystem processes with conservation and management perspectives, the chapter provides a foundation for understanding forest dynamics and maintaining healthy and resilient forest ecosystems.

Broad dhaniya (Eryngium foetidum L.: Umbelliferae - Apiaceae) is an underutilized leafy vegetable and aromatic plant used for seasoning food items and source of medicine. It is a shade loving plant of tropical regions.  It has got status of a promising cash crop with huge export potential particularly in United Kingdom, USA and Middle East markets. Its medicinal and seasoning properties are well known in various countries like Vietnam, India and in the Amazon region (De Gumao et al., 2002). Broad dhaniya is relatively unknown in many other parts of the world and is often mistaken and misnamed for its close relative Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.).

A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical resistivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.

A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound that can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.

An external electrical field changes a semiconductor’s resistivity. Devices made from semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, telephones, and many other devices. Semiconductor devices include the transistor, solar cells, many kinds of diodes including the light–emitting diode, the silicon controlled rectifier, and digital and analog integrated circuits. Solar photovoltaic panels are large semiconductor devices that directly convert light energy into electrical energy. In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons. In semiconductors, current can be carried either by the flow of electrons or by the flow of positively–charged “holes” in the electron structure of the material.

Recent awareness of consumers towards innovative probiotic fermented food products containing friendly bacteria and healthier foods has coined the term functional foods. Food development in the world is taking place mainly in three strategic directions as functional foods, organic foods and national foods. Every year the global demand is increasing at the rate of 15–20 %.

Fermentation by newer technologies involves specific strain of lactic acid bacteria. This brings specific fermentation under controlled conditions resulting in a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities.

Many microbes have ability to attach to various surfaces forming three dimensional extracellular matrix within which embedded the microbes grow and multiply forming thin layer structure called biofilm. Biofilms may form on living or non-living surfaces and can be prevalent in natural, industrial and hospital settings (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004). Biofilm mainly consist of three components - bacteria, matrix and surface. Extracellular matrix generally composed of extracellular polymeric compounds such as extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, phospholipids, DNA, teichoic and nucleic acids, and other polymeric substances hydrated to 85 to 95% water and polysaccharides (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004).

Modern research on life science is progressing at the nanoscale not only with the objective to reduce time and cost but also to ease the handling and working conditions. Application of nanotechnology in various domains of science has led to the enormous innovations. This field facilitates better understanding as well as treatment of living system, activate biotechnological processes, synthesizing new drugs for targeted delivery and biocompatible materials for sustainable environment. Throughout the world nano science is getting wide propaganda. Its application to medicine is increasing rapidly in order to develop nano-drugs with prolonged availability and efficient delivery through rearrangement of molecules at the nanoscale using molecular interactions for example van der Waals forces, H bonds, electrostatic dipoles and various surface forces.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines Climate Change as a change the weather parameters attributed directly or indirectly to human activity, altering the composition of the global atmosphere. Human activity includes the pollution that arises from industrial activity and other sources that produce greenhouse gases. These gases, such as carbon dioxide, have the ability to absorb the spectrum of infrared light and contribute to the warming of our atmosphere. Once produced, these gases can remain trapped in the atmosphere for tens or hundreds of years.

Fraudulent substitution of meat is the adulteration or mixing of the inferior or cheaper quality meat into superior quality meat. The first case of fraudulent substitution was recorded in thirteenth century A.D. at Florence in Italy. A common fraud in the meat industry in which uninspected meat is substituted for meat that has undergone inspection and been branded as satisfactory. The other frauds are the substitution of meat of another species, e.g. horse for beef especially in Britain and Ireland, beef in kangaroo meat in Australia, cat for chicken or rabbit, goat meat for mutton, mutton for venison, dog meat and cat meat for chevon in other countries including India. As per an estimate about 25-30% of meat sold in India is adulterated. These practices are more common in comminuted meat products. These illegal practices are punishable under PFA act 1955. The choice of method to be applied is depend on the need or condition of meat recovered.

Genus Citrus (Citrus spp.) belongs to family Rutaceae and subfamily Aurantioedae. Citrus fruits are cultivated over a wide range of agroclimatic conditions because of their ability to adapt to different situations. Citrus is considered to be one of the most remunerative fruit crops in India, having a lasting niche in the international trade and world finance. Most of the Citrus species are believed to be native to tropical and subtropical regions of southeast Asia, particularly, northeastern India and the region between China and India (Ghosh, 2007). Trees belonging to genus Citrus are comparatively small in size (other perennial fruit crops) and evergreen in nature that are grown in tropical, subtropical and even mild temperate climates. Citrus fruits are nonclimacteric so they do not ripen further once removed from the trees. So it is important that they are picked at the right stage of maturity.

Introduction

India contains around 7517 km of coast line, which is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean to its south. The Indian Coastal ecosystem, where land and water join to create an environment with a distinct structure, diversity, and f low of energy. They include salt marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, and bays and are home to many different types of plants and animals. (Marale. 2013). The geographic and land use details of Indian coastal zone is presented in Table 1.

Mango is one of the choicest fruits of India, grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country. Mango occupies the same position in India as occupied by the apple in temperate and grape in subtropical areas. In India mango is acclaimed as king of fruits. The name Mangifera was given for the first time by Bontius in 1658, when he referred to this plant as arbor Mangifera (The tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred to it as Mangifera arbor in 1747, prior to changing the name to its present form (Mangifera indica) in 1753. Mango is good source of vitamin A and C apart from the usual content of minerals and other vitamins. Mango is also considered to have some medicinal properties. Ripe fruits of mango is fattening, diuretic and laxative. Smoke of burning is supposed to cure hiccups and some throat troubles and the kernal is effective against diarrhoea and asthma. Besides table purpose, fruits of mango can be used for the preparation of pickles, preserves, jam, amchur (mango powder), mango leather (ampapad) and mango fool (mango+milk+sugar)

Veterinary surgery: The surgery which is practiced on animals. It deals with the treatment of deformities, injuries, or disease conditions by manipulation with the hands. The term “Surgery” is derived from a Greek word – Chirurgia (Cheir – Hand, Ergon – work).

The papyri of Egypt contained information on treatment of fractures and superficial wounds.

In Vedic era, Salihotra and Palakapya were the greatest ancient Indian veterinarians. Salihotra treated horses and Palakaya elephants.

“Susruta Samhita’ is the earliest known work dealing with the medical science especially surgery.

Hobday wrote first comprehensive text on surgical diseases of the dog and cat.

The theory and practice of asepsis was introduced by Joseph Lister.

W.S. Halsted introduced the principles of surgery and use of rubber gloves.

Abstract

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f) Nees (Family: Acanthaceae) is one of the most popular and valuable medicinal plants with high trade value. It is out mentioned in various systems of medicine since ancient times in Indian, Malay, Chinese and Thai. Andrographis paniculata is native to Southeast Asian countries i.e., India, China, Taiwan and Sri Lanka. In India it is distributed from Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam to Mizoram and also cultivated throughout the country. The plant being used as Ayurvedic medicine in various diseases. The principal chemical constituents are lactones, diterpenoid and flavonoids. Andrographolide, neoandrographolide are the principle secondary metabolites of Andrographis paniculata with more than 80 compounds reported till now. Modern studies revealed that Andrographis paniculata has an extensive range of pharmacological activities such as hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antidiarrhoeal, anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), anti-oxidant and anti-pyretic. Therefore, such plants need value addition for product development.

Introduction

Genetic resources are the building blocks for new varieties. The Indian gene centre is floristically extremely rich. Most of the tropical and sub-tropical fruits believed to have originated from Hindustan and Indo Malaya-Region. Hindustani gene centre possess a rich diversity of 152 crop plants distributed in different agro-ecological regions of India (Arora, 1985). The Indian sub-continent is one of the centers of origin and diversity of vegetables crops. Around 80 species of major and minor vegetables occur in wild forms (Choudhury, 1967, Seshadri 1987). Among the 118 genera belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family Cucurbita, Cucumis, Citrullus and Lagenaria genera are of great importance. There is tremendous genetic diversity within the family, genera and even within species level. The adaptation range varies from tropical and subtropical regions to extreme arid desert and in temperate regions from Tarai belts to higher altitudes. Extreme germplasm collections are maintained at different centers of the world which represents valuable resources for breeding even in wild form, primitive cultivars, landraces/ folk varieties/ farmer’s selection in a much localized pockets. Now we have very good strains for highly nutritive value, multiple disease resistant and extended shelf lives from our local material through intensive breeding.

Indigenous plant germplasm are adapted component of plant biodiversity. Such adapted components are more valuable resources either as a cultivar or as a parental line in hybridization programme. It might be also a putative material for biotechnological treatment for tolerance to biotic, abiotic factors or nutritional and quality components. Indigenous germplasm can be basically of two types, one which has been domesticated and subjected to human intervention, the other one may be called wild plants or wild relatives and still in the process of evolution without the human intervention. Biochemically the cucurbits are characterized by bitter principles, called cucurbitacins. Great variety of cucurbits contains bitter principle in portion of the plant at some stage of development. Cucurbitacins are tetracyclic triterpenes having extensive oxidation level. Bitter principals found in roots differ from those in fruits. Seedlings specially radicals contains cucurbitacins which are considered primary. The pollen also carries bitter principles and hence when bitter pollen fertilized non-bitter ovule the resulting fruit will be bitter known as metaxenia effect. Cucurbits are consumed in various forms i.e. salad (cucumber, gherkins, longmelon), sweet (ash gourd, pointed gourd), pickles (gherkins), deserts (melons) and culinary purpose. Some of them (e.g. bitter gourd) are well known for their unique medicinal properties. In recent years, abortifacient proteins with ribosome-inhibiting properties have been isolated from several cucurbit species, which include momorcharin (from Momordica charantia), luffaculin (from Luffa operculata), trichosanthin (from Trichosanthes kirilowif) and beta-trichosanthin (from Trichosanthes cucumeroides). Among these, Trichosanthin is of particular interest because its ribosome-inhibiting properties have been found to be effective in inhibiting the replication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), indicating its potential as a therapeutic agent for AIDS. In cucurbits three conditions are found (i) fruit and vegetative parts bitter (ii) fruit not bitter but vegetative parts bitter (iii) bitterness absent in both vegetative parts and fruits. Hence some kind of co-evolutionary relationship between cucurbits found and they are very helpful during evaluation of germplasm.

Milk: Composition, Nutritional Role, & Importance for Human Health Introduction
Milk is one of nature’s most complete and balanced foods, offering a rich source of essential nutrients such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals in forms that are easily digested and assimilated by the body. It serves as a cornerstone of human nutrition, providing critical support for growth, bone strength, and overall health. Known as the nectar of life, milk not only sustains life but also enhances immunity, forming the first bond between mother and infant.
An adequate intake of calcium, particularly during childhood, is critical for bone development and preventing osteoporosis in later life. Rich in calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, milk is vital for maintaining strong bones and teeth while preventing osteoporosis. Its high-quality proteins support muscle growthand recovery, while lactose and fats provide both immediate and sustained energy. Micronutrients like zinc, selenium, and whey proteins strengthen the immune system, and its high water content makes milk an excellent source of hydration. These qualities make it a protective food for all age groups, from infants to the elderly.
While milk naturally lacks iron and has low levels of vitamin D, fortification with additional nutrients enhances its nutritional profile, making it even more beneficial. Fortified milk helps address deficiencies, supports bone health, and boosts immunity, making it an ideal dietary option for diverse populations. For infants and children, milk is a near-perfect food, and for adults, it serves as an excellent dietary supplement, particularly for its calcium, protein, and vitamin content. Beyond its nutritional benefits, milk plays a significant role in culinary traditions and cultural practices across the globe.

Guava (Psidium guajava L.), belonging to family Myrtaceae, is cultivated and naturalized in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It occupies fifth place in area (0.15 million ha.) and fourth place in fruit production (1.80 million tonnes) in India. It has gained considerable prominence owing to its high nutritive value, availability at moderate price, a pleasant aroma and good flavour. Its fruits are used for both, fresh eating and processing. It excels most other fruit crops in productivity, hardiness, adaptability and vitamin C content. Besides its high nutritive value, it bears heavy crop every year and gives handsome economic return involving very little inputs. This has prompted several Indian farmers to take up guava cultivation on a commercial scale (Chadha, 2003). Guava trees are not difficult to grow and can survive in a range of soil and climatic conditions. However, precise management is required to produce a highly profitable crop.

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method of identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing body of a completed and a recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as the theoretical and the methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives knowledge of what others have found out in the related field of study. In any scientific investigation or research, a comprehensive presentation of the review of literature is a statutory requirement.

The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research.

Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones and also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The review of literature may

(a) Indicate the following by providing referential inputs – Approaches, Methods, Variables used, Statistical procedure, Expected results.

(b) Provide theoretical background to the study.

(c) Help to justify how the findings are related to the body of knowledge in the f ield of research.

(d) Establish a link between what we have proposed to study and what has already been found. It helps us to refine the research methodology.

A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

The first fullerene to be discovered, and the family’s namesake, was buckminsterfullerene C₆₀, made in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley. The name was homage to Richard Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic domesit resembles. Fullereneshave since been found to occur (if rarely) in nature.

The discovery of fullerenes greatly expandedthe numberof known carbon allotropes, which until recently were limited to graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal. Buckyballs and buckytubes have been the subject of intense research, both for their unique chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology.

I. INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE

The post-Vienna legal phase is remarkably known for revolutionary changes across the global wherein the third generation of human rights became the hallmark for the comity of nations and a liberational instrument to come out of nightmarish experiences of poverty and hunger.1 On the other hand the post-GATTised legal ordering is known for much publicized and debatable conclusion of Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and creation of World Trade Organisation (WTO).2 This new jurisprudential polemics soon evoked fierce scrutiny from the stand point of human right and poverty among third world countries.3 At home, it is dubbed as ‘bleeding operation with the dubious promise of benign global competition’, ‘de facto nullity of constitutional goal of social welfare’ and ‘contra- constitutional coup.4 Since India has become a member of WTO it indulged into massive rehabilitation and fundamental mutation of IPR regime. Despite the fact that it has a stark distinction of being a grain- surplus and food and livelihood insecure country. An inventory of over forty five million tonnes of wheat and rice in granaries remains ready for consumption. On the other hand over two hundred fifty million people generally go to bed partially hungry every day. There is a near consensus on the need to banish hunger but the realities on the ground remain that even at the risk of raising hopes the goal of food security may not be realized for generations.5 At home under the cover of food security the government is keeping millions of tonnes of food out of reach of the poor people.6 In fact India’s record breaking 200 plus million tonnes harvest is the result of steep fall in purchasing power of poor. The myth of surplus is based on sending hundreds of millions of human being hungry to their beds.7 Taken to its logical end we have abundance of food, surplus of hunger and scarcity of vision under the garb of food security.8