eChapters

Growth and development of any horticultural crop is mostly depending upon two chief natural factors i.e. climate and soil, which decides success or failure. Therefore, understanding about climate and soil requirements for different horticultural crops for optimum growth and development is a prerequisite for profitable farming.

There is often confusion between weather and climate. Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time e.g. from day to day or week to week. It is current atmospheric conditions including temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity, sky condition at a given place. Climate on the other hand, is the average condition of weather over a longer period of time. Climate is the sum of all the statistical weather information that helps to describe a place or region.

Climate includes different factors namely temperature (minimum & maximum),

According to the present state of our knowledge, sixteen-elements are considered to be essential for plant growth and development. These nutrients are chemical elements, which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic material. These elements are regarded as essential in higher plants.

These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Iron, Boron, Molybdenum and Chlorine. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are obtained from air and water. Carbon makes up the great bulk of the plant and is obtained from carbon dioxide in the air. Hydrogen is derived mainly from the breakdown of water. Oxygen is obtained from air as well as water. Other thirteen elements are obtained from mineral and organic components of the soil. These elements are further grouped into major/macro and minor/micro-elements. The nutrients that are required in relatively larger quantities are termed as macro elements. Micronutrients that are required in relatively lesser quantities are termed as micro nutrients.

Major industries constituting the food processing industry are grains, sugar, edible oils, beverages and dairy products. The key sub-segments of the food processing industry in India are dairy, fruits and vegetables, poultry and meat processing, fisheries, food retail etc. Agro processing is the sunrise sector of the Indian economy in view of its large potential for growth and likely socio economic impact specifically on employment and income generation. India has the advantage of being one of the fastest growing economies in the world and it is the largest producer of several agricultural commodities. The food processing sector ranks first in terms of employment and number of factories in operation and third in terms of output.

In India, out of the total production of fruits and vegetables, nearly 76 per cent is consumed in fresh form, while wastage due to improper post harvest accounts for 20 to 35 per cent. Only around 2 percent of vegetables and 4 percent of fruit production are being processed. 

1. Introduction

A combination of art and science had been used for a longer but due to the exponential increase in human population and reduction in operational land holdings its practices became narrow. Nowadays, gardening has gained much popularity among people, as the Covid-19 pandemic has forced them to lock themselves in their houses. These days Mass population is involved in gardening for growing their own food, resulting in a more personal approach to more economical, better-tasting, and healthier products (Pawelek et al., 2009). Gardens have grown increasingly significant for producing nutrient-dense food, protecting biodiversity, and conducting biological and ecological research and education. Biological communities, which are interacting groups of numerous species in the same place, can also be found in gardens. Pollinators and other visitors to flowers eat nectar and pollen from flowers, and some may use floral volatile oils, lipids, or resins for their food, shelter, and mating locations (Simpson and Neff, 1983).

1. Introduction

India’s horticulture production has exposed multiple rises in the historical two decades and the country is ranking second in the world next to China. The horticultural crops viz., fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops and medicinal and aromatic plants have become a vital motorist for economy development in numerous states in India. Horticulture contributes 30.4 per cent to GDP of agriculture, which calls for the need of research and technical backstopping in this sector. Horticulture is a division which has the potential to create multiple springs of income, thereby boosting the economic growth of a country. Horticulture can be undertaken as market driven cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers, as ecotourism, as therapeutic medicinal plant harvesting and as a part of multiple farming to accompaniment the main source of income.

With the sharp development of urban and industrial growth, the area under agriculture is declining year by year. On the other hand, human and animal population is increasing at a very fast rate. So, to meet the growing demand of food and fodders, a vertical increase in yield is required. Crop productivity per unit area can be enhanced with the manipulations of some agronomist practices such as sowing the crops at appropriate time, selection of suitable field for raising a crop, adoption of best planting techniques, use of appropriate seed rates, adoption of proper irrigation schedule, proper and need based application of fertilizers, adoption of zero till technology, green manuring, mulching, addition of well decomposed farm yard manure, timely and proper weed management, selection of recommended crops and crop varieties, proper control of insects and pests, adoption of marketing tips etc.

Sapota, Manilkara zapota (Linn.) (Family: Sapotaceae), commonly known as sapodilla or chiku, is a perennial and evergreen fruit tree. It is native to Southern Mexico, Central America as well as Caribbean. This fruit was introduced during 1888 in Thane district of Maharashtra in India (Cheema et al., 1954). Now, it is an important tropical fruit grown almost throughout the country except in hilly areas. The fruit is a rich source of sugar, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibers. Presently the India is considered to be the largest producer of Sapota in the world (Nandre and Shukla, 2014).

Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) is an important fruit crop in India and its commercial production is possible in temperate and sub-tropical areas of the country. According to the Ministry Agriculture, Government of India estimates, production of the fruit in India has dropped by 40% from 8,000 metric tonnes in 2014-15 to around 5,000 metric tonnes in both 2015-16 and 2016-17. Strawberries mainly consist of water (91%) and carbohydrates (7.7%). They contain only minor amounts of fat (0.3%) and protein (0.7%). The nutrients in 100 gm of raw strawberries are, calories 32, 91% water, 0.7gm protein, 7.7 gm carbohydrate, 4.9 gm sugar, 2 gm fiber and 0.3 gm fat. Strawberries should not lead to big spikes in blood sugar levels and are considered safe for people with diabetes. It is also useful for weight loss and can help prevent many diseases.The most abundant vitamins and minerals in strawberries are, vitamin C, vitamin B9, potassium and manganese. To a lesser extent, strawberries also provide iron, copper, magnesium, phosphorus and vitamins B6, K and E.

Globally saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is cultivated in regions spanning from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Countries like Iran, Spain, Italy, India, Greece, Turkey, Afghanistan, Morocco and Azerbaijan harbour suitable climatic and soil conditions required for its growth and harvesting (Mehdi and Reza, 2012). However, the crop is also cultivated on small scales inFrance, Switzerland, Israel, Pakistan, China, Egypt, United Arab Emirates and Japan. Recently its cultivation has been introduced in non-traditional countries like Australia, New Zealand, USA, Argentina and Chile (Fernandez, 2004). Globally, about 85 thousand hectares of land is under saffron cultivation, giving a produce of 288 MT. Iran leads with 90 per cent of total global share for saffron production (Baghalian et al., 2010) and 70% of global export earning a revenue of US$ 51million. India’s global share is about 4.5 per cent in production followed by Greece (2.5%), Morocco (0.9%), Spain (0.8%), Italy and China (0.3% each), Afghanistan (0.2%) and Azerbaijan (0.06%).

Pest

A pest is any animal or plant detrimental to crops, livestock and forestry. The term is also used of organisms that cause a nuisance, such as in the home. An older usage is of a deadly epidemic disease, specifically plague. In its broadest sense, a pest is a competitor of humanity, means disease causing microbes, plant devouring insects, macro-fauna like rats and moles, weeds, off type plants and even human beings are pests in perspective of plants.

IPM

IPM is a pest management system that in the context of associated environment and population dynamics, utilizes all the appropriate techniques to minimize the pest population levels below those causing economic injury. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) includes cultural Practices, Host Plant Residence, Mechanical control, Biological control, Use of Bio-pesticides, botanicals and Chemical control.

Introduction

Being a global agricultural powerhouse, agriculture sector’s importance in India’s economy goes well beyond imagination. As, our nation have second-largest agricultural land in the world, with around 60% rural Indian households making their living from agriculture. In India, the agriculture sector employs half of country’s growing population and rest of the population is greatly dependent on the farmers for subsistence. It has been the primary sector of India serving people from times immemorial till now.

Budget experts of India have estimated the agricultural growth rate to be near to 3.9 per cent in FY 2022-23, surpassing the 2021-22 growth rate of 3.6 percent approximately. The government of India’s priority shall continue on doubling farmers’ income by 2022-23 and becoming a USD 5 trillion economy by 2024-25.

Introduction

‘Infrastructure’ connotes physical assets. The meaning may differ based on the sector under which the term is in use. More often, it has been used to describe the public as-sets that facilitate production. Historically, Lewis (1955) included public utilities, ports, water supply and electricity as infrastructure, whereas Hirschman (1958) outlined four conditions that characterise infrastructure or social overhead capital: the services provided to facilitate or are basic to economic activity; the services are usually public goods because of economic externalities; these services cannot be imported; these investments tend to be indivisible or ‘lumpy’. 

What is Artificial Intelligence

‘Artificial’ is taken to mean a property of a human-made machine. ‘Intelligence’ will be that when something is able to perform a new action or change its state to achieve the optimal response it could perform given external inputs. This term is coined by- John McCarthy (American computer and cognitive scientist) during 1956 So, AI is basically a machine able to mimic human intelligence by having the ability to predict, classify, learn, plan, reason and perceive.

AI is an emerging technology in the field of agriculture. AI-based equipment and machines, has taken today’s agriculture system to a different level. This technology has enhanced crop production and improved real-time monitoring, harvesting, processing and marketing . The latest technologies of automated systems using agricultural robots and drones have made a tremendous contribution in the agro-based sector. Various hi-tech computer-based systems are designed to determine various important parameters like weed detection, yield detection and crop quality and many other techniques.

Introduction

Information and communications technologies (ICT) is defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to transmit, store, create, share or exchange information. These technological tools and resources include mobile phones, computers, the internet (website, blogs, emails), live broadcasting technologies (radio, television and webcasting), recorded broadcasting technologies (podcasting, audio and video players, and storage devices) and telephony.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture can act as a driving force in the development process. It facilitates marketing decisions, directs the competitive process and simplifies marketing mechanisms. Accuracy, Availability, Applicability and Analysis are the four ‘A’’s of marketing information; a farmer may decide how much to produce, when and where to sell and a trader may expand trade (Behera, 2015).

Introduction

The floriculture industry is changing quickly around the world. Due of globalization’s impact on revenue generation in various regions of the world, flowers are consumed per person in the majority of nations. Floriculture has a long history in India. Ancient Sanskrit classics like the Rig Veda (C 3000-2000 BC), Ramayana (C 1200-1300 BC), Mahabharata (before the 4th Century BC), Shudraka (C 100 BC), Ashvagodha (C 100 AD), Kalidasa (C 400 AD), and Sarangdhara (C. 400 AD) all make mention of flowers and gardens (C 1200 AD)(Dadlani, 2021).In many nations around the world, growing flowers is one of the industries’ tactics. India began producing flowers a few years ago, and the industry is now one of the nation’s major areas for expansion and change. Both socially and economically, floriculture is very advantageous. The trade in cut flowers has grown dramatically recently, both domestically and internationally. The freshness of the flowers for a longer period of time without losing their aesthetic value is what gives a flower its attractiveness. There is a massive loss in the value of cut flowers along the marketing channel, which may be 50% of the farm’s worth (Bhattacharjee, 1999).

Introduction

Lavender (Lamiaceae family) produces characteristically lavender- coloured (purple) flowers, although pink, white and green forms of some species also exist. There are approximately 20 species of lavenders with hundreds of various genotypes differentiated by variations ranging from morphology to chemical composition of essential oil. Cultivation of lavenders for essential oil is thought to have begun in the 16^th century. Recently there has been an upsurge of interest in lavender as a medicinal herb crop. Lavender is a perennial herb and is a native of the western Mediterranean and the eastern coast of Spain, France, Switzerland, North Italy, Corsica and North Africa. Lavender and lavandin oil have long been the major essential oils produced on the southern slopes of the French Alps. The oil possesses refreshing, sweet aroma and blends with many other essential oils. Therefore, it is widely used in perfumery, cosmetics and medicines.

Introduction

ICT in agriculture is an emerging field focusing on the enhancement of agriculture and rural development. It involves applications of innovative ways to use ICT in rural domain. The advancement in ICT can be utilized for providing accurate, timely, relevant information and services to the farmers, thereby facilitating an environment for more remunerative agriculture. (Mahant et. al. 2012). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in agriculture can act as a driving force in the development process. It facilitates marketing decisions, directs the competitive process and simplifies marketing mechanisms. Accuracy, Availability, Applicability and Analysis are the four ‘A’’s of marketing information; a farmer may decide how much to produce, when and where to sell and a trader may expand trade (Behera, 2015). Social media is the new upcoming area in agricultural marketing that has blogs, microblogs, pages, groups etc. It saves time and cost of the farmers for getting information. Facebook is the most likely social media for pages and profiles.

Introduction

Agriculture forms the backbone of the Indian economy. Although there has been large industrialization in the last 60 years, agriculture still occupies the prominent place of importance (Banarsi Lal, 2019). The agriculture sector contributes about 20 per cent of GDP in India (MoF, 2020-21). Both the agriculture and livestock sectors provide employment to 52 per cent of the work force (Rathod and Dixit, 2019). In India, most of farmers have small average holdings. Agriculture marketing can play important role in increasing income of farmers with same landholding. Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. 54.6 of the total workforces is engaged in agriculture and allied sector activities (Census 2011) and accounts for 18.8% (First Advance Estimates) of country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) for the year 2021-22 (at current prices). Agriculture sector needs structured and functional markets, preferably in the vicinity of farmers, to drive growth, employment, remunerative prices and economic prosperity in rural areas of the country.

Introduction The method of drying is expressed as applying heat under controlled conditions to remove the water or moisture from foods to get a dry product with low moisture content. The primary commitment of drying is to extend the shelf-life of foods by diminishing their water activity. Due to low water activity, microorganisms which cause food spoilage and decay and many of the enzymes which promote undesired changes in the chemical composition of the food are unable to grow, multiply or function. The need for drying in the food industry is increasing day by day, and Novel dehydration techniques are being invented for a more efficient drying process, less energy-consuming, and preserve the product characteristics and nutritional profile. Further, the drying technology is critical for moisture removal from food and non-food materials. Small scale farmers use this food preservation method as an indigenous method and the food processing industry as modern technology. Dried products have numerous benefits compared to raw products, including an extended shelf-life and reduced packaging, storage, handling, and transportation costs. However, drying is a highly energy-intensive food processing operation.

Introduction In today’s environment, the greatest challenge for the food industry is to develop health promoting foods; it is determined by the raw materials used and its impact on consumer health. Furthermore, people lifestyle has changed greatly, resulting in a change in food eating patterns. In today’s world, people are moving towards eating foods that are nutrient base and tasty (Bonciu, 2018). of all the nutrient based products available in market, expanded snacks have become a popular snack all over the world because of its crunchy texture and low density making it consumer’s acceptance (Grasso, 2020). The basic idea for developing any expanded snacks is utilizing a starch-based material for a better crispy and crunchy product, but to make it more nutritious incorporation of protein and fibre rich raw materials is recommended (Gu et al., 2017). Along with the raw materials, the other important parameters for developing any extruded product is the particle of the flour, its physicochemical and rheological properties of the extrudates are much concentrated (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2021) Thereby, extruded snack is considering as functional food with major health benefits.

Introduction The onion (Allium cepa) is one of the world's oldest cultivated crops, with a history dating back over 5,000 years (Gorrepati et al., 2014). At present, India is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of onions. At the time, India ranked second in onion production with a yearly production of around 23262 TMT and an average yield of 18.10 MT/ha (Prajapati and Saini, 2019; Horticulture Statistics at a Glance, 2018; Tripathi and Lawande, 2016). Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Telangana are the major onion producing states in India. Maharashtra alone covers 55-60% of countries total production. Solapur, Satara, Dhule, Jalgoan, Osmanabad, Beed, Latur, Aurangabad are the major onion producing districts in Maharashtra (Tripathi et al., 2005). Unfortunately, India witnessed around 40-50% post-harvest losses of onions every year (Prajapati and Saini, 2019).

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

Introduction Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a member of the Umbelliferae/Apiaceae family. Carrots is an important primitive cool season root vegetable crop cultivated in both tropical and temperate climatic conditions. Carrot is a significant winter root vegetable grown throughout India. Carrots are said to have originated in Afghanistan in western Asia, which is the principal source of variation. Carrots were grown in Asia Minor in the 10th and 11th centuries. It arrived in India from Persia in the 13th or 14th century. Its medicinal cultivation originated between 2000 and 3000 years ago. Carrots are a major root crop in European countries such as the United States, China, Japan, and India. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are the main carrot-growing states in India. During 2020-21, India produces 1885 thousand metric tonnes of carrot from 108 thousand hectares of carrot production. During 2020-21, Haryana ranked top in both area (19.83 thousand hectares) and production (337.43 thousand metric tonnes) of carrot in India (Anonymous, 2020). Carrot possesses antidiabetic, cholesterol and cardiovascular disease decreasing, anti-hypertensive, hepatoprotective, Reno-protective, and anti-inflammatory effects. Carrot roots are rich in carotene, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, niacin, and sugar.

Introduction Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. repifera L.) is a root vegetable grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of India that is commonly grown for its edible root and leaves. The root is typically white or cream-colored with a slightly purple or pink top, and has a slightly sweet and earthy flavor. The leaves, which are also edible, have a slightly bitter taste and are typically used in soups, stews, and salads. Turnips are a coolseason crop and are typically planted in the spring or fall. They are hardy and can tolerate frost, making them a popular choice for fall and winter gardens. Turnips are a very nutritious vegetable, they are a good source of vitamin C, fiber, and potassium, as well as other minerals and vitamins. They are also low in calories and high in antioxidants. The root contains a compound called glucosinolate, which has been shown to have anti-cancer properties.

As already discussed in above chapter there are various physical, geographical and environmental constraints that are associated with the hill agriculture, thus the scope for` agricultural policies based on modern input-intensive agriculture is inhibited in the hilly areas resulting in the majority of the hill communities to either live on subsistence agriculture or immigrating to other parts of the country for employment. The policies that might give successful results for any other state in India situated in the plains, may not prove to be fruitful in this hilly state. As the livelihood of the weaker sections in the hill areas is absolutely dependent on natural resources, their devastation will make the process of inclusive growth unsustainable in the long run. For sustainable agriculture it is necessary that agriculture of hill can be b understood in the right way and it should include all the necessary interventions on those activities in which farmers are dependent to make a livelihood. 

Introduction Agriculture plays a vital role in human societies and economies around the world. It is the prime food source for human populations, ensuring a reliable supply of nutritious food for the health and well-being of people everywhere. It is a major contributor to the economy of many countries, particularly in the developing world, where it provides livelihoods for millions of people and supports local and national economies. Agriculture is both impacted by and contributes to climate change. However, sustainable agriculture cultivation can also help to reduce the consequences of climate change by decreasing emissions of greenhouse gas and increasing resilience to extreme weather events.

Introduction Surimi and surimi based seafoods are traditional products of Japan and occupy an important position in the dietary culture of the country. Today, the largest producers of surimi are the United States, Japan and Thailand. Surimi is also manufactured in China, Vietnam and Malaysia. The process of makingsurimi originated in Southeast Asia and was further developed in Japan in the 16th century. Surimi is a product of Japanese origin, derived from a traditional Japanese way of using and preserving fresh fish. The word ‘surimi’ comes from the Japanese words ‘suru’ meaning ‘to process’ and ‘mash/mi’ meaning ‘meat’. Technically, surimi is the stabilized myofibrillar protein which is obtained by mechanically deboned fish flesh, which is washed, mixed with cryoprotectants, and stored frozen. Washing not only removes fat and undesirable matters such as blood, pigments and odoriferous substances but also increases the concentration of myofibrillar protein. A fish-based product serving the raw material for preparation of analog of seafoods like crab, lobster, scallop & other shellfish.

Introduction Fishermen of Gulf of Mannar coast were largely depending on traditional fishing gears, and they were mainly exploiting the coastal fishery resources before 1960’s. After the introduction of trawl gears and mechanized fishing boats during 1960’s fishermen were more comfortable with plenty of fish catch, especially the high-valued demersal shrimps. The fishing effort was also increased at a tremendous pace in this region with the addition of stern trawlers. Due to this increment in the fishing effort, the fishery resources and their life-supporting systems such as coral reefs and sea grass beds are seriouslydisturbed.

Introduction NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are organisations with professional staff that work to lessen human suffering and advance developing nations. The number of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in India is close to 3.4 million, and they work in a range of sectors, from disaster relief to advocacy for underserved and neglected groups. It is a nonprofit organisation that operates without interference from any governmental body. It is taskoriented and organised by people with common interests in a local, national, or international setting. It performs a variety of services and charitable tasks. Particularly, some are structured around particular concerns, such as health, the environment, or human rights. These make up a sizeable portion of civil society and bring about quick social change. They have developed into a vital and vocal platform for civil society participation in public affairs (Desai, 2014.).

Nanotechnology has emerged as a revolutionary force in the food industry, providing innovative solutions to improve food quality, safety, and usefulness. Researchers have devised novel ways to numerous issues in food production and preservation by harnessing nanoparticles' unique traits, such as their high surface area-to-volume ratio and customizable physicochemical characteristics. Nanotechnology-enabled food additives provide a wide range of benefits, including improved texture, taste, color, and nutritional value, as well as increased shelf life and microbiological safety. Furthermore, nanoparticles are effective transporters for bioactive chemicals, allowing for targeted and regulated release within the food matrix.

Agriculture serve as a backbone in improving economic growth of a country as well as it provides a base in meeting various needs of people in direct and indirect ways. The recent advancement in nanotechnology has shown a path to develop traditional agriculture into a sustainable practice. Several nanochemicals emerged as promising agents for better plant growth, used as fertilizer, pesticides, control weeds and also used as antimicrobial agents in food packaging. Nanotechnology may act as sensor for checking soil health of agriculture fields.

Introduction

At a present time, Organic farming has an important priority in different areas due to worldwide in look of the growing need for pure and nutritious agriculture food and keep up the feasible and environmental pollution on long time associated with indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizer. The use of synthetic inputs in crop cultivation is necessary to meet the growing need for agriculture food in world. The natural fertilizers are made containing living or veiled cells or their strains of N2 fixation, P2 O5 solubilization bacteria. The biofertilizers are used for seed cramming, soil or vermicomposting region with the objective of rising quantity of such microbes and further those microbial processes which augment the obtainability of nutrients that can be easily digest by plants. Biofertilizers are playing higher role in increase soil productivity by f ixing atmospheric nitrogen, both, in relationship with plant roots and without it, solubilise and insoluble soil phosphorus and produces many plant growth substances in the soil.

Introduction

Rice straw is produced as a by-product of rice production at harvest. Agricultural Waste Burning (AWB) is a major contributor of air pollution in many countries, particularly in South Asia. Exposure to fine particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (micrometer), also known as PM 2.5, released by AWB can cause premature mortality due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Brauer et al.,2012). Combine Harvesters used on the spring rice crop leave behind stubble and straw on the field (Sidhu et al., 2007). Farmers burn the rice residue while preparing the field for wheat sowing season that follows. Further, migrant labour from neighbouring states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh has decreased (Sirhindi, 2019), and resulted in an increase in the cost of agricultural labour during the rice harvest season (Sharma,2018). Farmers find it both convenient and economical to burn residue to clear and prepare their fields for the next crop. In 2018, over 20 million metric tons of rice residue was generated in Punjab, of which almost 10 million metric tons was subject to open-air burning (MoA, 2019). The time window between rice harvesting and wheat sowing is just 20 to 30 days towards the conclusion of the Kharif season, which is one of the primary reasons of crop waste burning (Balwinder et al., 2016).

Introduction

Soil organic matter is an indispensible component of soil health management. It plays an important role in improving soil physical, chemical and biological environment. Soil health refers to the capacity of the soil in terms of physical, chemical and biological properties for maintaining ecosystem services. With respect to agricultural lands, soil health implies the capability of the soil towards improving crop growth and yield, while also supporting environmental sustainability. Some important determining properties of soil health maintenance are soil reaction, salinity or alkalinity, soil organic matter, soil texture, soil structure/aggregation, water holding capacity, porosity, internal drainage, and nutrient retention capacity. Simultaneously, the key properties maneuvering soil health are soil aeration, internal drainage, nutrient cycling, susceptibility to erosion etc. Except some of the basic properties (soil texture) and processes (soil erosion), most of the determinant properties and processes are maneuvered by the presence of soil organic matter. A healthy soil must have strong resistance to degradation processes and able to recover following a perturbation because of inherent resilience (Magdoff 2001).

Biomass is a renewable and valuable resource that has many uses, including energy production, biofuels, and bioproducts. It’s made up of a complex mixture of organic compounds like cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, proteins, fats, and minerals, which can vary depending on the source and type of biomass. Understanding the composition and properties of biomass is essential for efficient use. In this chapter, we’ll provide an overview of how to analyze and evaluate biomass as a renewable energy source. We’ll cover various techniques and methodologies for analyzing biomass, including physical, chemical, and thermal properties. We’ll discuss the importance of biomass composition, moisture content, ash content, elemental analysis, calorific value, and other relevant parameters when assessing its suitability for energy conversion. Additionally, we’ll highlight the significance of biomass characterization in understanding biomass feedstock variability and its impact on energy production efficiency, environmental performance, and sustainability.

Introduction

The hilly states in north eastern India are not only famous for their forest wealth and awesome wild assets. These states are also known for their track record in harvesting specific crops and fruits. Some of the iconic ones are like, “Assam tea” which is famous in and outside India and popularity of “Khasi mandarin” is also well known. The small landlocked state Tripura produces quality pineapples in abundant amounts, where cv. Queen is popular among the growers. Sikkim and other states of north eastern region of India is known for their Organic Farming techniques, which is mostly attributed the nature of hill farming on this region. North-East is rich in horticultural aspect viz., f loriculture with a rich variety of medicinal plants grown there along with various fruits and vegetables. An analysis of NSSO survey data on cultivation practices shows that the North-East hill states have retained traditional practices and show an inclination towards organic agriculture that is harnessed for the development of the region with ecological benefits.

Introduction

Seasonal or annual fluctuation in weather patterns is termed as climate variability. However, climate change is a change in the mean state of weather statistic over three decades of time period. Climate change is exacerbating the challenges faced by the agriculture as well as horticulture sector. For last 10 years, Asia is facing the serious threats from climate change and variability such as tsunami, f loods and droughts. Extreme events are expected to have large negative impacts on crop productivity. The rise in temperature and reduction in rainfall under semi-arid environments are likely to reduce production of fruits, vegetables and flowers in the coming 20 years. The production and quality of fresh fruit and vegetable crops can be directly and indirectly affected by exposure to high temperatures and elevated levels of carbon dioxide and ozone. The rise in atmospheric CO2 levels due to global climate change and horticultural practices has both direct and indirect effects on secondary metabolite synthesis in plants.

The importance of earthworms in agriculture and human health has been realized since prehistoric times. The famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) first described the importance of earthworm by calling them as “The intestines of the Earth”. The question, ‘How lime and charcoal from soil surface gets into lower layers?’ in the mind of Sir Charles Darwin (1809-1882 A.D.) ended up with the findings in 1837 that earthworms took those materials to lower layers and it played a significant role in formation of humified soil layer. He wrote in his book, “The formation of vegetable mould through the actions of worms” in 1881 that ‘The plough is one of the most ancient and most valuable of man’s inventions; but long before he existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed, and still continues to be thus ploughed by earthworms.

2.1 Function

A variable ‘Y’ is said to be the function of an other variable ‘X’ if for every value of ‘X’ there exists a corresponding value of ‘Y’. It is denoted as Y = f (X). The function f (X) is a relationship between two variables (Y, X) which associates any given number x with another number y.

A function is a mapping or transformation of x into y and is denoted by y = f(x). The variable X represents the elements of the domain ‘D’ and is called the “independent variable”. The variable ‘Y’ represents the elements of the range ‘R’ and is known as the “dependent variable”.

17.1 Introduction

Factor-factor relationship is concerned with the possibility of substituting one input factor (X1 ) for another input/factor (X2 ) for producing a given level of output. It answers the crucial question of finding out the optimum or least cost combination of two or more resources in producing the given amount of output. The two fold objective of factor-factor relationship is:

1.1 An overview of biomass

Biomass is an abundant and renewable energy source that has the potential to meet the growing need for clean and sustainable energy solutions. This chapter provides an overview of biomass, its potential, and conversion technologies, which include various techniques for transforming biomass into useful forms of energy such as heat, electricity, and biofuels.

Biomass is an organic substance that can be obtained from agricultural crop waste, forest waste, animals, and microorganisms. It can be used as an energy source or a primary material in various applications. The energy in biomass is derived from photosynthesis, in which plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into organic matter.

4.1 Introduction

Baling biomass is a crucial technique in efficiently managing and utilizing agricultural crop residue. This chapter explores the process of baling, which involves compacting biomass materials into standardized bundles for easier handling, storage, and transportation. From agricultural residues to forestry waste, the chapter delves into various types of biomass suitable for baling, the equipment used, and the benefits of this technique. It also discusses the environmental impact, economic considerations, and emerging trends in baling methods. Through in-depth analysis and practical insights, this chapter offers a comprehensive understanding of how baling contributes to sustainable biomass management and resource optimization.

Introduction

As per the reports of the United Nations Organization (UNO), the world population is expected to increase to about 9.7 billion by 2050 and to 10.4 billion by the mid-2080s. The increasing population will result in food scarcity and hunger across the world. To meet the demand for food to feed the people and meet the present aim of WHO of “Zero Hunger by 2030”, agriculture and livestock production needs to be increased. However, according to the ICAR Vision 2050 document, growth of the livestock sector is expected to be higher than the agriculture due to different factors like urbanization and changing food habits among the population residing in the urban area, lack of technology among the small and marginal farmers, reducing operational land, water scarcity, reduced irrigation infrastructure, climate change, etc. to name a few. But to achieve food security through the livestock sector, animal health and production of the animals need to be addressed.

With time it has been well proved that protected cultivation is a better technology to enhance productivity and quality of the crops by providing a logical and technical solution to manage the major and minor biotic and abiotic stresses encountered under open field cultivation of major horticultural crops. The effectiveness of the technology has also been observed in many parts of the world (Singh, 2013). Presently, the area under different forms of protected cultivation is around 4.5 million ha in the world. During the last two and half decades, the area under protected cultivation has increased exponentially in various countries and around Mediterranean sea.

India is floristically extremely rich with about 33 per cent of its botanical wealth (over 15,000 species of higher plants) being endemic. There are about 141 endemic genera distributed over 47 families (Nayar, 1980) the 4,900 endemic species, a large number are localised in the Himalayas (about 2,532 species), compared with the peninsular tract (1,788 species), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (185 species). Indian region is a major centre of domestication and diversity of crop plants (Zeven and de Wet, 1982; Arora, 1991). About 33 per cent of the cultivated plant species have theirorigin in this region (Damania, 2002). The Indian sub continent is a centre of domestication and diversification of several economically useful wild plant species comprising about 3,000 plants of edible value, 4,000 species having known reputed medicinal value, 700 plants of traditional and social significance, 500 fibre-yielding species, 400 fodder plants, 40 plants having insectivorous uses, 300 gum and dye yielding plants and 100 aromatic and essential oil-yielding species (Arora, 1991).

Floriculture is most diversified and potential component of horticultural industry in India. It is one of the fastest growing sectors in domestic and international trade markets and holds high business potential and prospects for trade. In ancient era, the flowers were used mainly for religious offering but now floriculture sector has emerged as a commercial venture. There is a dynamic shift from sustenance production to commercial production in this era and thereby significant increase in trade of flowers at domestic level because of rapid urbanization, increase in income level, etc. Flower business is considered as a most profitable business as commercial floriculture has higher potential. The cut and loose flowers have opened various avenues for establishment of flower business.

Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals. Many of these phyto chemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total (Tapsell et al., 2006; Lai and Roy, 2004). These phyto-chemicals are divided into: (1) primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and (2) secondary metabolites (SM) – compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving a more specific function (Meskin, 2002). For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination.

27.1 Introduction

Eggs containing nutrients that play fundamental roles beyond basic nutrition in consumers and their promotion as functional foods should be considered. Eggs rich in protein and offer a moderate calorie source (about 150 kcal/100 g), rich in vitamins and minerals and also great culinary versatility and low economic cost, which make eggs within reach to most of the population. Eggs are also relatively rich in fat-soluble compounds and can, therefore, be a nutritious inclusion in the diet for people of all ages and at different stages of life. In particular, eggs may play a particularly useful role in the diets of those at risk of low-nutrient intakes such as the elderly, pregnant women and children.

28.1 Introduction

The majority of eggs produced in the world are sold in-shell for consumers to utilize in the home in traditional ways or for baking. Traditionally, surplus eggs not required for the shell egg market (normally the smaller sizes) and downgraded eggs were turned into egg products. Today, farmers have specific contracts to produce eggs for further processing, and any egg that is damaged cannot be used for this purpose. There are essentially three types of egg products, liquid, dried, and frozen, with small markets for peeled, hard-boiled, and hard-boiled pickled eggs.

Introduction Plant disease detection is a crucial aspect of modern agriculture, as it allows early identification and management of diseases, minimizing crop losses and maximizing yields. In recent years, advancements in technology have led to the development of more sophisticated techniques for plant disease detection. Point-of-care (POC) diagnostic assay for plant disease detection is a rapid, advanced, and on-site testing method designed to identify the presence of pathogens or diseases in plants. This type of diagnostic tool is particularly valuable for farmers, agronomists, and researchers who need immediate results to make timely decisions about disease management and crop protection strategies.