eChapters

Introduction and Scope

Plant and soil testing enable scientific assessment of the needs of the plant for nutrient elements and of the capacity of the soil to supply them. The nutrient elements enter the plant in ionic form from the soil solution. Ion transport to the root surface may take place through ion diffusion and bulk transport (mass flow). Mass flow is the sweeping along of ions as water moves to the root. It is particularly important for ions that are not absorbed on soil colloids such as nitrates and sulphates. Because of mass flow, a plant deficient in N can extract all the nitrates from the soil. Potassium, phosphate and the micronutrient cations are absorbed on soil colloids with various degrees of affinity and are greatly retarded in movement with the soil water. Diffusion (movement along a concentration gradient) is the main mode of transport from the solid phase to the root surface for these non-mobile ions. There is also a possibility that some of them are absorbed by a direct exchange of an ion, usually hydrogen, between the root surface and ions absorbed on soil colloids. Most ions are sorbed by the root against a concentration gradient and, thus, the process involves the use of metabolic energy. The fact that nutrient uptake is an active process explains some of its peculiarities. Plants not only accumulate nutrients against a concentration gradient, they are also able to select from the nutrients at the root surface according to their requirements (preferential uptake).

The increasing global emphasis on sustainable and environmentally friendly energy alternatives has placed biofuels at the forefront of green energy innovation. Derived from agricultural biomass and organic waste, biofuels represent a promising substitute for conventional fossil fuels, particularly in agrarian economies where such feedstocks are abundantly available. Agricultural biomass includes crop residues such as rice straw, wheat husk, corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, and oilseed cakes. Meanwhile, organic waste comprises food waste, animal manure, municipal solid waste, and industrial organic residues. Converting these materials into biofuels not only reduces landfill burden and environmental pollution but also cuts down greenhouse gas emissions and promotes the development of rural and circular economies. A variety of biofuels—including biogas, bioethanol, biodiesel, biohydrogen, and syngas—can be produced through two major conversion pathways:
• Biochemical conversion, which involves microbial and enzymatic processes such as fermentation and anaerobic digestion.
• Thermochemical conversion, which includes pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion processes to transform biomass into energy-dense fuels.
Types of Liquid Biofuels
The term biofuel commonly refers to liquid fuels produced from recently living plant material, unlike fossil fuels derived from ancient biomass. Among these, ethanol and biodiesel are the most prevalent forms:
• Ethanol: A type of alcohol produced through fermentation, usually from sugar- or starch-based crops like corn, sugarcane, or cassava. Ethanol is used either as a fuel substitute or blended with gasoline to reduce carbon emissions in vehicles.
• Biodiesel: Produced through the transesterification of oils extracted from plants and seeds (such as soybean, sunflower, or palm), biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be used in standard diesel engines. It offers a biodegradable, less polluting alternative to petroleum-based diesel.

6.1 Introduction

All separation procedures depend mainly on some physical characteristics of the compounds. It is relatively easy to separate compounds that have significantly different physical characteristics by simple techniques such as solvent extraction. If the various compounds are similar to each other in their molecular size, any slight difference in any one of their physical properties is exploited to achieve separation. The separation and purification of plant constituents is mainly carried out using one or other, or a combination of chromatographic techniques: Paper Chromatography (PC), Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Column Chromatography (CC), High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPTLC), Optimum Performance Laminar Chromatography (OPLC), Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). One further technique, which has fairly wide application in phytochemistry, is electrophoresis.

All separation procedures depend mainly on some physical characteristics of the compounds. It is relatively easy to separate compounds that have significantly different physical characteristics by simple techniques such as solvent extraction. If the various compounds are similar to each other in their molecular size, any slight difference in any one of their physical properties is exploited to achieve separation. 

Introduction

Soil is the main source of nutrients for the plants. Soil also provides support for plant growth in various ways. Knowledge about soil health and its maintenance is critical to sustaining crop productivity. The health of soils can be assessed by the quality and stand of the crops grown on them. However, this is a general assessment made by the farmers. A scientific assessment is possible through detailed physical, chemical and biological analysis of the soils. Essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S are called macronutrients, while Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Mn, B and Cl are called micronutrients. It is necessary to assess the capacity of a soil to supply nutrients in order to supply the remaining amounts of needed plant nutrients (total crop requirement - soil supply). Thus, soil testing laboratories are considered nerve centres for nutrient management in crop production systems and plantation forestry.

Soils may have large amounts of nutrient reserves in them. All or a part of these reserves may not be of any use to crops because they may not be in plant-available form. For the purpose of estimation or analysis of plant-available soil nutrients, such methods are to be used that have been tested/verified for the correlation of nutrients extracted and their plant availability. This book describes internationally accepted and widely used methods. Apart from nutrients, soil pH estimation is also critical in the assessment of soil health. Generally, plants prefer soils that are close to either side of neutrality. However, there are acid- loving plants and also plants that can withstand high soil alkalinity. Hence, good yields and economic returns from farming are possible in acid and alkali soils. With proper amendments, still higher yields can be obtained in acid and alkali soils. Soil pH also has a considerable influence on the activity of soil micro-flora and on the availability of soil nutrients to crops. It is also important to estimate physical properties such as soil texture, structure, bulk density, soil colour, water content and soil temperature.

Abstract

Estimates of genetic parameters are needed for the prediction of breeding values and planning of selection strategies for desired genetic advancement. Even animal breeders feel lost when confronted with the huge set of different methods. This paper describes an overview of latest methods for the estimation of genetic parameters in a simplest possible way avoiding complex mathematical expressions.

Introduction

Irrigation water always contains some soluble salts irrespective of its source. The suitability of waters for a specific purpose depends on the types and amounts of dissolved salts. Some of the dissolved salts or other constituents may be useful for crops. However, the quality or suitability of waters for irrigation purposes is assessed in terms of the presence of undesirable constituents, and only in limited situations is irrigation water assessed as a source of plant nutrients. Some of the dissolved ions, such as NO₃, are useful for crops.

Sometimes, effluents and domestic sewage water is utilized for irrigating field crops. For using these water safely in the farming system, assessment of undesirable pollutants and organic and microbial constituents with regard to their suitability is fore-most important. Determination of organic constituents is generally carried out under two categories viz., (i) organic substances that quantify an aggregate amount of organic C and (ii) individual or specific organic substances, such as benzene, DDT, methane, phenol and endosulphan. Important determinations are the chemical oxygen demand (COD), which gives the total organic substances, and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which gives the amount of total biodegradable organic substances in the water sample.

Organic material especially, seeds, grains, leaves, fruits and nuts contain prominently three groups of compounds. They are carbohydrates, proteins and fats/oils, mostly in that order. They also contain 3-5% minerals and smaller quantities of vitamins and other minor constituents. Cereal grains contain more of carbohydrates while oilseeds and nuts contain more oil. Tree nuts and even oilseeds may contain 30-50% protein while cereal grains contain 5-8% protein only. The starch and sugar contents of oilseeds may be less than 10% while the oil content of cereal grains ranges around 5%. The actual content and the composition of these groups of compounds really account for their quality as well as commercial value.

Seed is a basic input to raise the crop plants. Healthy seeds produces the healthy crop. However, the seed carries different pathogens either externally or sometimes internally in the seed to affect the seed emergence and healthy seedling growth. Therefore, the seed treatment with fungicides/bactericides, based on the infection of the pathogen, is highly essential to counter the attack and infection of these pathogens to the germinating seedlings.

Introduction

Diseases are a common occurrence on plants, often having a significant economic impact on yield and quality, thus managing diseases is an essential component of production for most crops. These fungicides are used because of three main reasons:

a.To control a disease during the establishment and development of a crop.

b.To increase productivity of a crop and to reduce blemishes.

c.To improve the storage life and quality of harvested plants and produce.

Application Methods

To protect the crop from fungal pathogens, fungicides are applied in various formulations (as dust, granules, gas and most commonly, liquid). They are applied to:

1.Seed treatment

2.Soil treatment

3.Protection of standing crop

Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will prevent the fungus damaging the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed

1. Foliar or vegetative application
2. Soil application

Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will prevent the fungus damaging the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed.

1.Soil treatment

2.Seed treatment

3.Foliar or vegetative application

The term ‘Ecology’ deals with the study of organisms from all sources and their interaction with surrounding environments. The aim of ecology is, therefore, to understand and also to explain the relationships of all organisms to their environment. In this respect, the duty of the ecologist is to study a particular environment, estimate the population of each species, recognize the communities, and determine their activities and their interactions with both related species, the rest of the community, and their environment. Macroecological studies always initiate by defining the species composition and then proceed to draw certain conclusions on the role of these species in the ecosystem. On the other hand microbial, especially bacterial classical taxonomy (based on isolation techniques and determination of morphology and in vitro biochemical characteristics of isolates) for determination of each species of aquatic bacteria is almost impossible, except in a few cases. Consequently, the microbial ecologist has to depend upon certain methods that can measure the biomass or activity of a very large conglomerate of coexisting microbial taxa in an aquatic environment. Probably, this has caused the very slow development of microbial ecology concepts and application of a general ecological theory to the microbial ecology.

1. Detection means the existence of whatever do you want detecting but diagnosis is that the analysis in depth of existing thing.
2. Objectively look for, listen to the credible complains, symptoms that is sometimes not visible at all.
3. It is art or skill of identifying some abnormalities, i.e. which is below or higher than the normal permissible range/threshold.

A. Evaluation of the efficacy and resistance of anthelmintics against Helminths Anthelmintic resistance According to WAAVP (World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology) anthelmintic resistance is a failure to reduce feacal nematode egg count by at least 95%. Technically accurate definition is that resistance is a genetically determine decline in the efficacy of an anthelmintic against a population of parasite that is susceptible to the drug. The history of parasite resistance to anthelmintic starts with the first report on phenothiazine resistance in 1957. Haemonchus contortus was the first nematode to develop resistance against different anthelmintic. The World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology has recommended two tests for detecting anthelmintic resistance in ruminants, horses and pigs. These are in vivo test (FECRT) and an in vitro test (the egg hatch test). Detection Technique

Objectives

1. To know the methods of essential oil extraction of spices and condiments.
2. To know the various chemicals present in the essential oil of different spices and condiments.

Essential oil: Essential oils are the liquids that are isolated from plants when introduced to solvents. They are liquefied versions of the plants.

Extraction methods of essential oil

1. Steam Distillation
2. Solvent Extraction
   1. CO₂ Extraction
   2. Maceration
   3. Enfleurage
3. Water Distillation
4. Water and Steam Distillation

Detection and identification of the causes and diagnosis of the diseases rapidly and precisely are the basic requirements for developing effective crop disease management systems suitable for different ecosystems. Incorrect diagnosis leads to failure to contain the disease spread and consequent additional expenditure to the growers. Hence, it is essential that proper diagnostic procedures are followed to achieve the goal of reducing both quantitative and qualitative losses of agricultural and horticultural produce. Morphological, biological, biochemical, physiological, immunological and genomic characteristics of microbial plant pathogens have been carefully considered to develop rapid, sensitive and reliable methods of detection and identification of cause(s) of newly observed disease (s) in the locations concerned. Various methods of establishing the nature of microbial plant pathogens are discussed in detail in earlier publications

2.1  Write True/False

Q.1    From theoretical point of view, the most general method of estimation is the “Maximum Likelihood Estimation Method.”
Q.2    The method of “maximum Likelihood Estimation” was initially formulated by the statistician named as “C.F. Gauss.”

4.1 Introduction

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell. Plant cells grown in culture can also be ruptured with a glass tissue homogenizer. Silicified or highly lignified plant tissues within the organs such as roots, stems, leaves, fruits and seeds are usually frozen and pulverized using liquid nitrogen in a mortar and a pestle (Kaufman et al., 1999). Softer tissues can be ground in a small volume of buffer in a mortar, washed white sand and a pestle to rupture the cells.

When the cells have been ruptured, the extraction is performed using the appropriate techniques. Water soluble compounds and proteins are extracted in buffers or water. Organically soluble compounds are extracted with organic solvents. Boiling ethanol is a good all-purpose solvent for preliminary extraction (Harborne, 1998). The success of the extraction with alcohol is directly related to the extent chlorophyll (when isolating substances from green tissue) is removed into the solvent. The most common chemical procedure for obtaining organic constituents from dried plant tissues is to continuously extract powdered material in a Soxhlet apparatus with a range of solvents, starting with petroleum ether and chloroform (to separate lipids and terpenoids) and then using alcohol and ethyl acetate (for more polar compounds). This method is useful when working on the gram scale. However, one rarely achieves complete separation of constituents and the same compounds may be recovered (in varying proportions) in several fractions. The extract obtained is clarified by filtration and is then concentrated in vacuo in a rotary evaporator. To prevent fungal growth, a trace of toluene may be added to the concentrated extracts and they should be stored in refrigerator. There are short cuts in extraction procedures which one learns with practice. The concentrated extract may deposit crystals on standing.

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell.

Methods of fertilizer application

Two major methods are used to apply fertilizers  
I) Application of fertilizers in solid form 
II) Application of fertilizers in liquid forms

In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration. Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops are different and even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth. The aspects that require consideration in fertilizer application are listed below:

Objective

1. To know the different types of fertilizer application methods applied in spices and condiments.

Methods of fertilizer application: The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types

1. Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

Developments in recombinant DNA technology have made it possible to transfer gene from any source across species barrier. In fact, transfer and expression of foreign genes in plant cells is now a routine procedure. Of the several methods tried so far, the system based on Ti plasmid of Aprobacterium tumefaciens appears to be most successful for transformation of plant cells.

Dry Methods
1. Decortication and dehulling: The process of decortication for groundnuts and cottonseeds enhances the nutritional profile of the resulting cakes by eliminating the outer layers, which are notably high in crude fiber. Similarly, dehulling or dehusking of pulses and grains also contributes to an improved nutritional value.
2. Cracking and dry rolling: This technique involves the fragmentation of the kernel into smaller particles through the application of pressure using dry rollers. This method increases the surface area of the grains, thereby enhancing their digestibility.
3. Crimping: In this method, the traditional rolling of grains is substituted with the use of corrugated rollers, a process referred to as crimping.
4. Crumbles: The term “crumble” refers to the process of grinding pellets into a granular form, which is particularly beneficial for chick feed.
5. Popping or puffing: This technique involves the dry heating of grains, which must contain a moisture content of 10-14%. The final moisture content in the popped grains is approximately 3%. During this process, grains are subjected to temperatures ranging from 370 to 425 degrees Celsius for 15 to 20 seconds, leading to the rupture of the endosperm due to the rapid expansion of steam. This results in an increase in grain size and enhances both palatability and digestibility.
6. Micronizing: This process employs infrared heat energy on grains, resulting in the breakdown of glucosidic bonds between starch molecules.
7. Roasting: In roasting, grains are exposed to direct flames at a temperature of 148.9 degrees celsius. This method not only expands the grains but also inactivates protease inhibitors in whole soybeans, thereby improving their nutritional quality.

8.1 Introduction

After isolation and purification of the compound, it has to be identified. It is necessary to find out the class of the compound first and then to find out the specific compound within the class. The class of compound is usually determined from the colour tests, solubility, Rf properties and UV spectral characteristics of the compound. Further identification within the class depends on measuring physical properties and spectral measurements and then comparing these data with those in the literature. The physical properties include melting point (for solids), boiling point (for liquids), optical rotation (for optically active compounds) and Rf. The spectral measurements include Ultra Violet (UV) , Infra Red (IR) , Mass Spectrum (MS) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Data on X – ray crystallography of the compound are also useful for identification of the compound.

On completion of the analysis of the spectra obtained, the pieces that have been identified are listed. Then the pieces, the MW and / or molecular formula are checked and the pieces are refined to fit. Finally, the pieces are assembled paying particular attention to ¹H-NMR chemical shifts and coupling patterns. The answer should be checked with the ¹H-NMR data very carefully and it is probably the most critical test to pass. The ¹H-NMR spectrum is potentially the most useful for assembling the structure of the compound.

A known compound can usually be identified on the basis of the above mentioned physical and spectral characteristics. For final confirmation, direct comparison with authentic compound (if available) should be carried out Authentic compounds can be obtained from commercial companies. In the absence of authentic compound, the data from literature can be carefully compared for the identification of the isolated compound. If a new compound is present, all the above data are sufficient enough to identify it. However, data on chemical degradation or laboratory synthesis of the compound are necessary to confirm the identification of the new compound.

After isolation and purification of the compound, it has to be identified. It is necessary to find out the class of the compound first and then to find out the specific compound within the class. The class of compound is usually determined from the colour tests, solubility, Rf properties and UV spectral characteristics of the compound. Further identification within the class depends on measuring physical properties and spectral measurements and then comparing these data with those in the literature.

13.1 Incubation
The silkworm eggs are to be incubated properly to avoid irregular hatching. An ideal incubation is to maintain a temperature of 25oC and 75-80% humidity continuously. In most of the places incubators are not available. In such cases, the eggs are kept spread in wooden trays provided with paraffin paper for base and the cover and foam pads kept wet all around inside the trays to maintain 70-80% humidity. In each chawki tray of 90 cm × 120 cm about 4 sheets of eggs can be kept for incubation. The room temperature is maintained at 25°C. On 9th day the egg sheets are rearranged. About 25 dfls (disease free layings) are kept in a chawki tray of 90 cm × 120 cm to enable brushing and proper spacing for young worms later. The egg sheets are covered with a sheet of black paper or paraffin paper. On the due date of hatching and when a few larvae have started hatching, black paper and the paraffin paper are removed and the eggs are exposed to dim light for about an hour. This facilitates the uniform hatching of larvae.
13.1.1 Methods of Incubation
There are two methods, i.e., constant temperature incubation and raised temperature incubation

The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which have been executed for delineating the study, collection of information, analysis of data, and interpretation of the findings for the revelation of hard evidences and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and procedure used in the study consisting of eight main parts

A. Locale of research

B. Pilot study

C. Sampling Design

D. Item analysis and experts rating for devising scoring technique on dependent variables

E. Empirical measurement of the variables.

This chapter deals with an in-depth description of the methods and procedures employed in conducting the research in an organized manner. The research methodology gives the study’s work plan. The research objectives and theoretical base offer an initial framework for identifying the appropriate methodology to answer the research questions.

The procedures followed were described under the following headings.

5.1 Research design

5.2 Locale of the study

5.3 Content analysis of websites

5.4 Statistical tools used for the analysis of data.

5.5 Preparation of report

8.1 Introduction

After knowing when to irrigate and how much to irrigate, next important thing is how to irrigate the crop field. Methods of irrigation play a very crucial role in deciding how to irrigate the crop fields since all the crops do not require same methods of irrigation. Depending on the sources of water available for irrigation, type of crop to be irrigated, quantity and quality of water to be applied and other economic considerations, methods of irrigation will vary. Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by flooding it on the field surfaces as surface irrigation, by applying it beneath the soil surface as subirrigation, by spraying it under pressure as sprinkler or overhead irrigation or by applying it in drops around the root zone of the crop as trickle irrigation. The commonly used methods of irrigation are described in schematic diagram as follows:

Irrigation Methods

Surface

Sub-surface

Pressurized irrigation

12.1 Surface Irrigation

Surface irrigation method refers to the manner or plan of water application by gravity flow to the cultivated land wetting either the entire field (uncontrolled flooding) or part of the field (furrows, basins, border strips). Most irrigated areas have characteristic land features and differ from those in other areas. Hence, for efficient application of water it is important to select such method of irrigation, which fits one’s own land.

The adoption of a certain method need not be necessarily based on convention or that followed in the adjoining farm. The factors, which determine the suitable method of irrigation are local conditions (soil type - its permeability & water storage capacity; land topography, climate, water availability & water quality), crop type, type of technology, previous experience with irrigation, required labour inputs etc. Good yield of crops can be obtained from irrigated land only if the water is applied judiciously to meet the needs of the plant, but not to cause waste and damage. Irrigation water is applied to cultivated land by the following surface methods of irrigation:

1. 1 Introduction

Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important inputs for crop production.

9.1 Introduction

After knowing when to irrigate and how much to irrigate, next important thing is how to irrigate the crop field. Methods of irrigation plays a very crucial role in deciding how to irrigate the crop fields since all the crops do not require same methods of irrigation. Depending on the sources of water available for irrigation, type of crop to be irrigated, quantity and quality of water to be applied and other economic considerations, methods of irrigation will vary. Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by flooding it on the field surfaces as surface irrigation, by applying it beneath the soil surface as sub irrigation, by spraying it under pressure as sprinkler or overhead irrigation or by applying it in drops around the root zone of the crop as trickle irrigation. The commonly used methods of irrigation are described in schematic diagram as follows

1.1 Introduction
Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important input for crop production.

Object: Methods of measurement of water status and water saturation deficit in plant parts. 

Material required: Leaf samples, leaf borer, water, petridishes, forceps, oven and blotting paper. 

Theory: Plant water status strongly influences plant growth and biomass production through its effects on leaf and root expansion and on photosynthesis. Therefore, measurement of plant water status is an important component of understanding plant processes and maximizing yield under different ecosystems. 

Method: Plant water status can be measured and computed by any one of the following methods

Atoms and molecules are the essential building blocks of every object. The manner in which things are constructed with these basic units is vitally important to understand their properties and their reciprocal interactions. An efficient control of the synthetic pathways is essential during the preparation of nanobuilding blocks with different sizes and shapes that can lead to the creation of new devices and technologies with improved performances. Traditionally nanoparticles were produced only by physical and chemical methods. Some of the commonly used physical and chemical methods are ion sputtering, solvothermal synthesis, reduction and sol gel technique

Basically there are two approaches for nanoparticle synthesis namely the Bottom up approach and the Top down approach. In the Top down approach, scientists try to formulate nanoparticles using larger ones to direct their assembly. The Bottom up approach is a process that builds towards larger and more complex systems by starting at the molecular level and maintaining precise control of molecular structure.

These two different methods highlight the organization level of nanosystems as the crossing point hanging between the worlds of molecular objects and bulk materials.

The top-down approach has been advanced by Richard Feynman in his often-cited 1959 lecture stating that “there is plenty of room at the bottom” and it is ideal for obtaining structures with long-range order and for making connections with macroscopic world. Conversely, the bottom-up approach was pioneered by Jean-Marie Lehn (revealing that “there is plenty of room at the top”) and it is best suited for assembly and establishing short-range order at the nanoscale. The integration of the two techniques is expected to provide, atleast in principle, thewidest combination of tools for nanofabrication.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. Such losses not only threaten global food security but also have the potential to limit food access due to unavailability of food, or sharp increases in food prices. But this challenge is also an opportunity to find new ways to help crops better withstand adverse conditions in a farmer’s field.

19.1 Introduction

In self-pollinated crops, the methods of selection aim at improving individual plants. On the other hand, in cross-pollinated crops they aim at improving a population of plants. A population is a large group of interbreeding individuals. Hence, selection is called population improvement in cross-pollinated crops. Selection in self-pollinated crops results in isolation of pure breeding lines which is the end product. But in cross-pollinated crops, it results in an improved population which is used as the commercial cultivar. Improved inbred lines (also called inbreds) for producing hybrids can be obtained from such populations. Again, like many rounds of selection being practised in different inbreeding generations in self-pollinated crops we are also practising many rounds of selection in cross-pollinated crops. But, unlike self-pollinated crops selection in cross-pollinated crops is followed by intermating to develop a new population before starting another round of selection. One cycle of selection consists of selection of individual/family and intermating of the selected units. Such cycle is repeated till we get the improved population. This method of practising the cycles of selection and recombination in a population is called recurrent selection or population improvement. Frey (1983) prefers the use of recurrent selection for closed populations where no new germplasm is added to the population during selection. Population improvement was used for a group of breeding techniques where all aspects are similar to recurrent selection but with the provision of adding new sources of germplasm whenever feasible. It is only a matter of coincidence that past history of application of recurrent selection has been limited to closed populations, but its basic aim has always been the accumulation of favourable genes, without any restriction on the migration of new genes during the course of selection. Apart from a slight nuance, population improvement and recurrent selection are two titles of the same principle and procedure of manipulating the genetic potential of populations. Recurrent selection can also be applied in self-pollinated crops.

17.1 Introduction

Self-pollinated vegetable, spice and ornamental crops may be heterogeneous. It is exemplified by landrace cultivars. They may have originated from single plant selections but have been grown over a long period of time. Landrace cultivars are a mixture of genotypes, perhaps because of breeders’ lack of appreciation of selection techniques to produce a pure line, spontaneous mutations, chance hybridization, or a combination of factors. Natural selection in landraces has resulted in a cultivar that is well adapted to the local environment. Depending on amount of human selection, differences among genotypes in a landrace cultivar may be small and inconspicuous. On the other hand, a lack of human intervention may mean that differences among plants in a landrace cultivar will be conspicuous. After years of self-pollination, individual plants are homozygous. Selection of such individuals would result in a true-to-type reproduction of their phenotype within the limitations imposed by the environment.

18.1 Introduction

The genetic variability present in populations of self-pollinated vegetable, spice and ornamental crops is rapidly exhausted by pureline selection. For further improvement, genetic variability must be created. This is generally achieved by hybridization. After the cross has been made, F₁ is grown and seeds set on it are harvested. This makes the seed source for raising F₂ population, and so on. The segregating populations from crosses are handled according to a suitable method. The three basic methods available for this purpose are: (1) pedigree method, (2) bulk method, and (3) backcross method. There are also certain modifications of these methods.

18.2 Pedigree Method

Pedigree method is developed from the pureline system and widely used method of plant breeding for self-pollinated crops. A main difference between pedigree selection and mass selection or pureline selection is that hybridization is used to create variability for the base population in case of the former, whereas in mass and pureline selections variability is naturally present in the base populations. The pedigree method was first described by H.H. Lowe (1927). This method predominated the crop improvement programme throughout the world until 1980s. Pedigree method is common in horticultural crops, especially where readily identifiable qualitative traits are involved. Vegetable crops in which pedigree system is used include tomato, cucumber, pepper, pea, lettuce, snap and field beans, all self-pollinated crops. In general, selection is done on F₂ plants. Yield is important in many horticultural plants, but quality is equally or even more important. Quality may be associated with identifiable traits, making the pedigree system ideal for self-pollinated vegetable crops.

An animal breeder usually interested in various economic traits and when wishes to improve them in the herd/flock, he has three general methods at his disposal. Tandom method, independent culling level method and  index selection method.

Tandom Method

It involves selection for one trait at a time and until it reaches at a satisfactory level, and then for a third trait etc. This method is applicable only when the different traits in question are entirely independent or positively genetically associated to each other. Its effectiveness decreases with the increase in number of traits. This method is least desirable of all the methods.

Tandem Selection
Selection is practiced for one trait at a time until satisfactory improvement has been achieved in this trait. Then, selection efforts for this trait are relaxed and efforts are directed towards the improvement of a second, then for a third and so on, until finally each trait has been improved to the desired level. This method is the least efficient of all the three methods, from the stand point of the amount of genetic progress made for the time and effort by the breeder. Efficiency of tandem selection depends a great deal upon the genetic correlation between the traits selected for. If the genetic correlation is positive and desirable, improvement in one trait by selection would automatically result in improvement in the other trait not selected for, and then the method could be quite efficient. Otherwise, if there were little or no genetic correlation between the traits, which means that they are inherited independently, the efficiency would be less. When the two traits are negatively correlated, improvement in one trait is nullified or neutralized by the regression in the other. For example, in poultry, selection for egg number will result in reduction in egg weight, as they are negatively correlated.
Independent Culling Level (ICL) Method
Method of selecting two or more traits but they both need to meet a minimum standard. It is very strict that if the animal didn’t meet one trait it would be rejected. Independent Culling level (ICL) Method selects several characteristics or traits simultaneously.
Breeders set minimum or maximum culling levels or standards or criteria for each trait of selection objectives. Any animal not meeting all criteria is not selected for use in the breeding program regardless of the level of excellence of other traits. With each successive generation of progeny, the minimum quality of each characteristic is raised thus ensuring improvement of these traits. For example, a breeder has a view of the minimum requirements for milk yield, fat yield, and service period for which cows are breeding. The breeder will determine what the minimum acceptable quality for each of these traits will be for progeny to be folded back into her breeding program. Any animal that fails to meet the quality threshold for any one of these criteria is culled from the breeding program. Thereby, it causes the loss of excellent genes from the population for a particular trait.

Objectives • Seminal evaluation and processing • Evaluation of bull fertility on the basis of its seminal characters • To make the Artificial insemination programme successful History Related to Semen Collection • The use of artificial vagina was started by Milovanov for semen collection. Before that method of placing the cotton ball in vagina was used. • AV for Dog was discovered by Amantea in 1914. Milovanov discovered AV for Bull, ram and stallion. Mckenzie discovered AV for boar (1931). • The electroejaculatory method of semen collection was initiated in a bull by Laplaud & Cassou and in ram by Gunn. • Burrows and Quinn (1937) developed the method of abdominal massage and pressure to collect semen in poultry.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling
The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1.1 Definition

“A sampling procedure which gives equal chance to all possible samples each of size n which can be drawn from a population of size N, is called simple random sampling.”

Progeny testing in India was introduced in the late 1950’s the first sire index in our country was suggested by Krishnan (1956) which was, however, similar to the herdmate and contemporary comparison methods. Robertson and Rendel (1954) stated that an efficient method of sire evaluation should satisfy two conditions: 

There is urgent need to increase the production in order to meet the demand for the exploding population. This could be achieved by applying various modern methodologies in selection and breeding of livestock. Increasing the productivity through genetic improvement requires adequate identification and intensive selection of genetically superior sires. About 93 per cent of the total herd improvement comes from breeding of young bulls from tested sires and only six per cent from selection of dams.
With the advances in artificial insemination and cryopreservation of semen, a sire has a potential of serving 3/4th million cows and producing 1/4th million progenies.
Thus, selection of bulls is of great importance in dairy herd improvement.
For maximising the genetic gain by sire selection, it is essential that the method of estimating breeding values of sires should be unbiased and efficient. The breeding value refers to the average genetic effect of the genes passed on by the individual to its offspring and is estimated to know whether the individual is genetically superior to other individuals or not for the trait concerned.

Since commencement of the settlement of world, the search for food had been uppermost, thereby, practising the conservation of food is a basic need for ensuring its ample supply to human being. The problem of food storage is growing fast day by day with the increase in the population. The existing shortage of protein and caloric requirements will not only be solved by growing more food and resorting to family planning measures but also by saving the produce from deterioration and wastage, and its efficient allocation to meet the growing requirement of population. In countries with varied climatic conditions, it is a steady struggle of man with insects, mites, rodents and microbes in getting the food stuff.

Need and Objectives of Storage

Since times immemorial, man adopted a particular system of storage and certain produce storage standards. Some of the storage methods are still in use in several regions, in the capacity varying from one kg to several hundred quintals, like hollowed gourds, skin bags, mud bins, excavated stones, woven baskets, underground pits etc., particularly in the tropics. The problems of storage in developing countries are more acute than that in well developed countries and a considerable disparity seems to be there in food availability. All need a food supply that should be nutritious, clean; free from insects, rodents, birds, other animal filth and harmful chemical residues. There are two types of needs, one immediately after harvest and the other in off season. There is no need of storing the produce for immediate requirement but for the latter case, the need to conserve produce properly is inevitable. Further, the need for storage has always arisen for one reason to distribute commodity in deficit production areas and the other based on improved quality standards. In all the way, therefore; growers, processors, transporters and warehouse owner must assist to comply with these requirements.

Vegetable breeding is the purposeful genetic manipulation of qualities in vegetable crops to create new varieties with a set of desired characteristics that are better suited for cultivation, give better yield, quality and are resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. Vegetable breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from plant introduction, simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics, to more complex molecular techniques. Classical plant breeding includes hybridization followed by selection and mutation to develop the desirable plant types. With the advancements in genetics, molecular biology and in vitro culture, different molecular genetics tools are also being used in vegetable breeding.
Sexually propagated vegetable crops
1. Plant Introduction
The term “Plant introduction” describes the movement of crop plants, species, varieties, wild species, etc. from their original growing sites to other locations where it was not grown earlier. Plant introduction is essentially the method of cultivating crop plants in a new environments. The agro-climatic conditions can differ greatly depending on the origin of the plant species and the area where they are introduced. Plant introduction is a time-honored strategy for improving crop diversity.