eChapters

3.1 Training

Virtual orchards are sophisticated, simulated environments used to train agricultural robots in a controlled, risk-free setting. These virtual landscapes replicate real-world orchards with high fidelity, incorporating detailed models of trees, fruits, branches, and various terrain features. By leveraging advanced technologies like 3D modelling, physics-based simulation, and machine learning, virtual orchards provide a comprehensive platform for developing and testing robotic algorithms without the logistical challenges and costs associated with field trials. In these simulations, agricultural robots can perform various tasks, such as navigating through rows of trees, detecting and localising fruits, and executing precise pruning actions (Shamshiri et al., 2018). The virtual environment allows for testing different path planning and control algorithms, enabling researchers to fine-tune these systems for optimal performance.

Additionally, virtual orchards can simulate various environmental conditions, such as changing light levels, weather patterns, and the presence of obstacles, providing a robust testing ground for robots to adapt to dynamic scenarios. One significant advantage of virtual orchards is the ability to generate large amounts of training data for machine-learning models. Robots can be exposed to many pruning scenarios, enhancing their ability to generalize and perform effectively in real-world conditions. Furthermore, the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) can aid in training human operators to control and supervise these robots, improving their proficiency and reducing the learning curve (Sarker, 2021).

4.1 Introduction

Pests and plant diseases pose serious risks to global agriculture (Strange and Scott, 2005; Oerke, 2006). Plant diseases and pests are the natural disasters that can impede a plant’s normal growth throughout the plant’s whole life cycle, from seed formation to seedling growth and may result in plant death (Liu and Wang, 2021). Diseases reduce yields in a number of important crops by 21–30% globally (Savary et al., 2019), whereas insect infestations reduce crop output by 30–33% annually (Kumar et al., 2019). For the management, accurate disease diagnosis and pest identification are essential. Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques can be a crucial addition to enable the monitoring of plant diseases and pests at a coarse scale, as traditional field scouting of these pests and diseases is labor-intensive, subject to bias, and typically shows low efficiency (Mahlein, 2016).

Agriculture is undergoing a revolution because of artificial intelligence (AI), which is replacing outdated techniques with more effective ones (Talaviya et al., 2020). AI intervention in agriculture is helping farmers increase productivity and reduce adverse environmental effects (Sujawat, 2021). The application of AI techniques has created new opportunities for scientific research as well as new instruments and ways for handling and analyzing vast volumes of data. An important benefit of AI is its capacity to spot patterns in data that are not immediately obvious or available to humans. This allows for previously unattainable new insights and discoveries (Angermueller et al., 2016; Eraslan et al., 2019). AI is currently changing how we work and live, yet its influence on pathology and entomology research is still underappreciated. AI’s cost-effectiveness, precision, quickness of performance, and adaptability are its core concepts in agriculture (Eli-Chukwu, 2019). In agriculture, artificial intelligence not only helps farmers use their abilities, but it also guides them to obtain better quality and larger yields with fewer resources (Khandelwal and Chavhan, 2019). AI-based technology addresses the issues that agricultural sector faces and helps to increase efficiency in all areas. These challenges include crop harvesting, irrigation, soil content sensitivity, crop monitoring, weeding, harvesting, and establishing.

5.1 Introduction

The application of chemical pesticides is crucial in horticultural production, but it is also one of the most hazardous agricultural operations. Overapplication can lead to significant environmental concerns. Spraying is vital for reducing harvest losses and improving productivity. According to Cho et al.,(2012), 30-35% of production damages can be prevented by reducing harmful insects and diseases through spraying. Plant protection is essential for ensuring yield quantity and quality. Effective pesticide use is crucial, as excessive application can lead to pests developing immunity, destruction of beneficial insects and natural pest enemies, and increased harmful insect populations. Excessive pesticide use also disrupts pollination, preventing fruit formation. The method of pesticide application is key to targeting the correct quantity and quality, reducing environmental contamination, and increasing sustainability (Abbas et al., 2020). Site-specific application rates in precision horticulture can decrease pesticide use. Only 30-40% of pesticides typically reach their targets, with most lost to the environment, contaminating workers and causing pollution. Protecting plants with chemicals aims to prevent infections and ensure healthy growth.

Spray drift can harm non-target plants and contaminate watercourses, posing a severe and costly problem for horticultural farmers using air-assisted variable sprayers (Seol et al., 2022). Spray drift refers to airborne spray droplets moving beyond the intended application area from aerial or ground-based methods. Studies have found that a significant portion of pesticides is lost to the air and ground, with up to 30-50% of the applied pesticides being lost through various means (Abbas et al., 2020). Modern trends emphasize the importance of sensors and precision agriculture for effective pesticide use. Understanding tree canopy physical features is crucial for effective spray application. This study focuses on recognizing and geometrically classifying canopies for adequate pesticide protection. Variable rate spraying targets only the canopy, enhancing pesticide application efficiency (Rathnayake et al., 2022). Electronic methods and innovative equipment reduce operational and environmental costs. Sensors tracking canopy characteristics and spacing ensure optimal use of inputs, promoting sustainability.

Leafy vegetables are rich source of vitamins like A, C and minerals like calcium and iron. Most of the leafy vegetables are quick growing types and shows good response to manures and fertilizers. Their easiness in cultivation and adaptation to diverse agroclimatic conditions makes it suitable for various cropping systems. Some of them are annual in nature while some others are perennial. Leaves as well as tender stems are uses as vegetable in the cooked form. They are reported to have antinutritional factors, oxalates and nitrates compared to other vegetables. The annual leafy vegetables are widely cultivating in our country and among them, amaranth, palak, spinach and fenugreek are the major ones. These crops are short duration in nature, completes their entire life cycle by 80-90 days and produce good yield and brings monetary returns to farmers in short time.

Amaranth (Amaranth sp.)

It is herbaceous fast growing annual leafy vegetable grown for leaves as well as grains. Vegetable amaranth is reported to be equal or superior in taste to that of spinach. Leaves and succulent stem are good source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium and iron and are used as vegetable. High oxalate and nitrate content are reported in some species of amaranth.

The major vegetable species of amaranth cultivating in India is A. ticolor. It is suggested to be originated in South or South east Asia particularly in India. Another vegetable type, A. dubius shows diversity in Central America, Indonesia, Asia and Africa. A. lividus is the popular vegetable type in South and Central Europe. Other leafy species are A. viridis, A. tristis and A. spinosus. A. cruentus, A. hypochondriacus and A. caudatus are cultivating for grain purpose. Taxonomists suggested two sections in Amaranthus namely blitopsis which include leafy types and amaranthus which constitutes grain types.

Exotic vegetables are those vegetables that are introduced or not common in India. Its area under cultivation is comparatively less and most of the growing area surrounds the targeted markets especially five star hotels and restaurants. Now a days, there is an increasing trend in cultivation of these high value vegetables because of increased demand and good profit. Farmers could sell these vegetables at a at a higher price when compared to traditional vegetables. They are mostly cultivated in net houses or poly houses. Some of the exotic vegetables popular in India are asparagus, celery, broccoli, lettuce, parsley etc.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)

Asparagus is a dioecious monocot which produces tender succulent above ground stems known as spears from fleshy underground crown. These tender spears are used as vegetable, for cooking purpose and for the preparation of soups. The white crystalline substance, asparagine present in the juice of young shoots have diuretic properties and is used in cardiac dropsy and chronic gut. Asparagus is mainly cultivating in countries like USA, Germany, Spain, France etc. while in India, it is cultivating only in a negligible area. Asparagus is grouped under cool season vegetables. But newly emerging spears are susceptible to frost though a wide range of environmental conditions can be tolerated by mature asparagus. Asparagus is native to temperate Europe and Asia and has been cultivating for 200 years.

Morphology

Asparagus is perennial in nature and produce erect branched stem and grows upto a height of 1 to 3 m. The crop yield continuously for 10-15 years from the initial year of spear production. Asparagus roots are tuberous and the leaves are narrow and needle like. Male and female flowers are produced in different plants.

Introduction

A variety of glassware, plasticware, and other apparatus are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. They need to be washed, cleaned, dried, and sometimes sterilized before they can be used in the next set of experiments. Glassware needs special care of handling during washing, drying, sterilization, etc. because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in its cracking/breakage and it may become unserviceable. All of these may result in a delay in experimentation if spare piece of the glassware is not available or it may affect serviceability of the associated apparatus.

A large number of glassware such as beaker, flask, measuring cylinder, burette, test tube, etc. are regularly used in a laboratory, which requires careful handling during the different stages of experiment as well as after completion of the experiment while preparing them for another set of experimentation.

Glass being a complex silicate, its properties depends on the type of silicate anions in the structure and the cations formed. Thermal properties of glass changes by the addition of boron oxide (B2 O3 ); hence, borosilicate glass is extensively used in the laboratories. With this brief background information, let us discuss about the necessity, procedures, and precautions during washing, cleaning, drying and sterilization of laboratory-wares. Figure 3.1 shows various advantages of using borosilicate glass in a laboratory.

Good laboratory practices require clean glassware, because an experiment may give erroneous result if dirty glassware is used at any step of the experiment. Hence, the glassware must be physically and chemically clean; and in many cases, it must be microbiologically clean or sterile. The commonly used glassware in a laboratory include test tube, measuring cylinder, pipettes, beakers, flasks, microscopic slides, etc.

Introduction

Measurement of pH of a solution and preparation of different types/strength of buffers are common practices in a laboratory, particularly in the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology laboratories. Therefore, in this chapter you will be acquainted with the procedures of measuring pH of a solution as well as preparation of some of the commonly used buffers in a laboratory.

Potential or Power of Hydrogen Ion (pH)

Measurement of pH of a solution is measuring the molar concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in the solution, which is an indication of the acidity or basicity of the solution. The symbol pH stands for “power of hydrogen” and numerical value for pH is just the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The ionic product of water (Kw ) is the basis for the pH scale. The total hydrogen ion concentration from all the sources and it can be experimentally measured.

The pH scale designates the concentration of H+ (and thus of OH−) in an aqueous solution, which ranges between 1.0 M H+ and 1.0 M OH−. The term pH is defined by the expression

Thus, the ionic product of water makes it possible to calculate the concentration of H+, with given concentration of OH−, and vice versa. The value of 7 for pH of a neutral solution is not an arbitrarily chosen figure; it is derived from the absolute value of the ionic product of water. A solution having pH greater than 7 is basic, and the concentration of OH− is greater than that of H+. A solution having a pH less than 7 is acidic.

Introduction

Different types of culture media are used for culturing microbes and plant tissues. Preparing as well as sterilizing them properly following appropriate method with safety for the desired purpose are important parts of research work. In this chapter, we will discuss briefly about different types of media, their composition, preparation and sterilization in laboratory for microbial or plant tissue culture.

Culture Medium

Ingredients mixed to prepare solid, liquid or semi-solid substance to support the growth of microorganism or plant tissue in vitro (outside the body) is called culture medium. Frequently, it becomes important to grow microorganism or plant/animal tissue in vitro for any or all of the following purposes:

• To study characteristic features or properties of microorganisms.

• To identify the causal organism(s) of infection in a clinical sample, so that appropriate remedy can be determined.

• To culture/multiply microorganism or plant/animal tissues in vitro for research or commercial purposes.

• To prepare/produce biological molecules, vaccines, antigens, proteins, metabolites, etc. in vitro for research or industrial purposes.

Introduction

Flowering plants (Angiosperms) are identified by their morphological characteristics like flower, fruit and seeds that help their taxonomic characterization into different species, genera, families and orders. The floral characters which are used for taxonomic characterization of plants include the type of inflorescences, perianth structure, floral symmetry, arrangement of floral leaves, type of androecium, stamens, gynoecium, carpel, ovule, etc. The type of fruit and seed also play important roles in taxonomic classification. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about various morphological features of flowering plants (in botanical terms) that are useful in taxonomy.

Nomenclature of Plant

Nomenclature of plant is the formal and scientific naming of plants. It is related to but distinct from taxonomy for grouping and classifying plants and provide botanical name.

The scientific/botanical nomenclature started with Species Plantarum by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

ICBN and ICN

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, (ICBN) was adopted by the VIIth International Botanical Congress held in Stockholm, July1950. While the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) was adopted by the XVIIIth International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011.

Introduction

We come across a variety of chemicals every day in a laboratory. While some of them are relatively safer, others are extremely hazardous. Thus, it is very important to know the potential hazards that can be caused by the chemicals present in the laboratory and the safety measures needed to be followed to avoid the hazards. Additionally, we should also be aware of the steps necessary to be taken on such hazardous situations. According to IUPAC, a hazardous chemical mean the chemical which has the potential to cause damage in various ways. In a laboratory, there are chemicals that might be irritant, carcinogen, respiratory fibrogen, systemic poison, asphyxiant, flammable, etc. which have the potential to cause hazard to the workers or environment. Therefore, it is important to use appropriate procedure to reduce the risk and protect the health/safety of laboratory personnel, the public and the environment.

Types of Hazards Associated with Chemicals

Chemical hazards: The hazards caused by chemicals can be broadly classified into three categories.

1. Health hazard: This is also known as toxic effects of chemical. The risk associated with a chemical in laboratory depends on the extent of exposure and the inherent toxicity of the chemical. Many chemical reactions form the product that might be much more toxic than the reacting chemicals. For example, inadvertent mixing of formaldehyde (a common tissue fixative) and hydrogen chloride results in the generation of bis(chloromethyl) ether, a potent human carcinogen. For most of the chemicals, the route of exposure (through skin, eyes, gastrointestinal tract, or respiratory tract) is more important (Figure 17.1) that must be considered during risk assessment.

Introduction

Proper electrical wiring and earthing are crucial for laboratory safety and functionality. A laboratory houses several installations/equipment that demand stable/continuous power supply. Inappropriate or faulty wiring and earthing may lead to significant risks, including electrical shocks, damage to equipment, and even incidence of fire. Therefore, understanding the requirements of electrical wiring and earthing is essential for designing, construction, and maintenance of laboratory. This chapter aims to provide a basic knowledge of electrical wiring and earthing necessary for a laboratory. Importance of earthing in mitigating electrical hazards and ensuring integrity of electrical installations are also described.

Basics of Electrical Wiring

Basic understanding of electrical wiring is necessary for laboratory safety and efficient electrical functioning. The potential difference between two electrical points (negative and positive) is known as Voltage, which drives the flow of electric current. This is measured as volt (V). The rate of flow of electricity in a circuit is known as Current (I), which is measured as ampere (A). Current can be either direct (DC) or alternating (AC). Opposition/resistance experienced in the flow of current in circuit is known as Resistance (R) and it is measured in ohms (Ω). Higher the resistance means lesser the current flows at a given voltage. The rate at which electrical energy is transferred/utilized in an electric circuit is known as Power (P), which is measured in watt (W). The Power can be calculated as the product of voltage and current (P = V × I).

Introduction

Several hazardous chemicals, microbes, and techniques like recombinant DNA technology are used for research and development work in research Institutes and universities. Therefore, the researchers, technical, helping and supporting staffs as well as the laboratory outputs must be kept free from contaminations. Thus, biosafety is necessary to prevent unintentional exposure/ release of hazardous chemicals, microbes/pathogens, and toxins to the laboratory staff and environment. Following the biosafety guidelines and ethical considerations are essential to maintain safety standards for the researchers as well as the environment. This chapter deals with various biosafety measures and ethical issues to be strictly followed while working in a research laboratory. The required safety level needs to be determined as per the chemical/biological materials are used in the laboratory to keep the researcher/environment safe for sustainable research and developmental activities.

Biosafety

The term biosafety is used to describe the procedure and policies needed to ensure environmental and personal safety. Biosafety refers to the containment principles, technologies and practices that are implemented to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens, toxins, or their accidental release into the environment. A fundamental objective of any biosafety program is the containment of potentially harmful chemical/biological agents as precautionary safety measures.

Why Biosafety?

With the increasing number of countries adopting molecular biology tools and techniques in life science research and development activities, especially in the areas of agriculture and medicine, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure biological safety for the public and the environment. Conducting research in safe and sustainable manner is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment. This requires rules, regulations, monitoring bodies, and awareness among the workers as well as the public. Therefore, biosafety per se is an integral part of laboratory research and requires awareness among the researchers so that biological safety can be well taken care from the grassroot level.

Communication is a key to understand things between two people. Today’s communication is entirely different from pre-historic era and has taken many evolution throughout the years. Before alphabets, signs, symbols, letters and telephone evolved, communication was restricted to interpersonal interaction (i.e.) from one person to another in the form of gestures. It is in other terms called non-verbal communication. Today, communicating between two or more people has become too easy that one can communicate with more than 10 members at a time which is in technical means called conferencing.

The growth of internet has paved way for innumerable means of communication. In other words it can be told as, communication is re-defined by technology. Texts, email, tweets, tele and video conferencing have widely saved much time of people and made them recipients of today’s fast moving world.

Communication beyond history

Ancient nomads used to communicate with the help of drawings and paintings. Chauvat Cave in France is one such example which proves that communication through cave painting had taken place 30,000 years ago Before Christ (BC). Throughout the world many such cave painting monuments has been discovered. One in South Sulawesi, Indonesia and Coliboaia Cave in Romania gives an idea about how communication would have prevailed among people those days.

Later came symbols. Historical evidences prove that, symbols were used by people around 10,000 B.C. Through rock carvings pictograms were developed by ancient people to tell a story to their next generations through logographic images. It is said that, culture among human groups have evolved through rock carvings. Later, ancient cultures developed ideograms. Egyptians had their own style of communication called Hieroglyphs. Chinese created their own characters. Lastly, the alphabets re-defined language and communication was developed around 2000 BC.

Group contact method in communication involves engaging with multiple individuals simultaneously to convey information, facilitate discussions, or stimulate collective action. It encompasses various techniques such as group meetings, result demonstrations, method demonstrations, and study tours, among others. The primary aim of group contact methods is to leverage the power of collective engagement to disseminate knowledge, foster collaboration, and promote the adoption of desired behaviors or practices within communities. These methods enable extension workers to reach larger audiences efficiently, promote peer learning, and create supportive environments conducive to positive behavioral change.

Result Demonstration

Result Demonstration involves showcasing the superior outcomes of a new agricultural practice to motivate its adoption within a community. It serves as an effective means of technology transfer, inspiring farmers to experiment with innovations themselves.

Objectives include illustrating the practical advantages of newly recommended practices, motivating community groups to adopt them, bolstering confidence among farmers and extension agents, and fostering innovation leadership.

Techniques

Planning and Preparation • Analyze the local farming context. • Select cooperative farmers with adequate resources and community acceptance. • Choose representative demonstration sites. • Establish a clear schedule of operations.

Introduction

The traditional methods of food production are coming under increasing strain due to the ever- increasing population of the world and the ever- decreasing availability of land and water resources. The good news is that there are currently concrete solutions to some of these difficulties that can be provided by technology. The fact that climate change is happening while the global population is growing poses the question of how we can ensure that the food we produce is reliable and of consistent quality. Is it possible to grow food in settings that can be regulated, allowing for production that is not dependent on the weather or temperature? It is just a computer enthusiast who is thrilled about how the industry is evolving, but maybe that makes it sound like a visionary. Over the course, gathering a significant amount of expertise working on initiatives that include the use of technology towards horticulture concerns is important. In order to keep newly emerging pests and diseases under control, horticultural crops require a higher degree of personal attention and plant monitoring than arable crops. The use of this intensive but integrated management strategy cleared the path for technology advancements that automated and optimized the farming processes that were previously handled manually, hence introducing increased precision and dependability

The Importance of Adoption of Technologies

Recently, the necessity to improve production, earnings, and productivity was the primary driving force behind the choice of technology that was made available to farmers. The primary obstacles included a lack of access to cash, a lack of familiarity with how to use the technology, and exposure to market risks, the latter of which was mitigated by the policies of the government in many countries. In the past, “good policy practices” were therefore rather straightforward, relating primarily to increasing output, and the goal of agricultural and horticulture policies was to increase productivity in agriculture and horticulture. This was the case because in the past, “good policy practices” were related to increasing output. It is possible that agricultural research and extension services could center their efforts, for instance, on increasing the overall productivity of smaller farms.

Introduction

Farmers have long used biorationals such as Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) in both crop production and crop protection. This understanding is the result of many generations of interaction within natural and physical environments (Rajasekaran et al., 1991 and Kolawole, 2001). ITK is the unique and local traditional knowledge that is specific to a particular culture or community and is passed down from one generation to the next and every individual has inherited this information from their ancestors. Except for a handful, ITKs are passed down from generation to generation verbally, with no validated written documents. Many definitions of ITK systems have been proposed, but all of them are incomplete because the notion is still relatively young and changing. The ITKs are environmentally friendly and compatible with pest management approaches (Deka et al., 2006). ITK was defined by Wang (1988) as “the whole body of knowledge and practices based on people’s cumulative experiences in resolving situations and issues in a variety of spheres of life and such information and practices are unique to a specific culture.” According to Haverkort, 1995, ITK is the actual knowledge of a given population that reflects the experiences based on tradition and includes more recent experiences with modern technologies. The phrase “indigenous technological knowledge” is frequently disguised with the idea that it is connected to upcoming events and the innovations developed by farmers to address certain issues. Among the associated terms are (i) Indigenous Knowledge (IK), which refers to the participant’s understanding of their social and temporal context. The term “indigenous knowledge” as used here refers to any identifiable community’s knowledge, not just which of indigenous peoples; (ii) The Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) describes a conceptual framework for theories and perceptions of nature and culture. The physical, ecological, social, economic, and ideational surroundings are thus included, together with their definitions, categorizations, and concepts. The cognitive and empirical levels both have a role in IKS dynamics. IKS is evident in institutions, artifacts, and technology on an empirical level. ITK is expressed through stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community regulations, local language and taxonomy, agricultural techniques, tools, materials, plant species, and animal breeds. ITK is stored in people’s memories and activities, and is expressed in the form of stories; ITK is shared and communicated orally, by specific examples, and through culture. An African proverb says “When an old knowledgeable person dies, a whole library dies” indicating the importance of ITKs. It serves as the foundation for local decisions in rural communities on agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, and a variety of other activities. Indigenous knowledge serves as a society’s information hub and helps in decision making and communication. Indigenous information systems are dynamic and constantly affected by both internal innovation and experimentation and interactions with outside systems. The phrase “indigenous technological knowledge” is frequently disguised with the notion that it is connected to upcoming events and the innovations produced by farmers to address certain issues.

Introduction

The current science and technology is highly developed and everything is at our fingertips. The drudgery that was involved earlier while doing any kind of activity is so much reduced at present. The use of technology is so important nowadays that it has become unavoidable in all fields. With the tools and techniques, most of the problems can be solved and so technology has become a part of our lives thereby making our lives better. Some of the trending technologies are Artificial Intelligence (AI), robotic process automation, 5G, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Machine Learning (ML), Virtual Reality (VR) etc. With the application of all these technologies, every discipline whether it is infrastructure, medical science, transport, communication, etc. has become stronger than ever. Even the field of agriculture has become so advanced with these technologies. The enhancement of agricultural activities has become so important with the depletion of natural resources, less human labor, and the changing climatic conditions. All over the world agricultural technologies are adopted, disseminated, and practiced to increase production and productivity, improve livelihood and alleviate poverty (Kilima et al., 2013). Similarly, the main reason for the growing demand for ICT in agriculture is for the farmers to get up-to-date knowledge and apply the tools and techniques to improve their livelihood. However, the ultimate aim is to adopt sustainability in agriculture. Through ICT, farmers can get updated information on the market prices, weather forecast, emergence of pest and diseases and their management practices, planting materials, varieties, etc. This knowledge not only gives the farmer an efficient method of farming for more production but also empowers them with modern agricultural ways. The use of ICT in combination with other techniques enables the farmer to save time, use resources efficiently, and produce better quality products.

Introduction

The changing climate and its variability are a big concern for the human being. The recurrent droughts and floods, which are the results of this changing climate seriously hamper the livelihood of billions of people who depend on land for most of their needs. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (UNFCC; 1992), “climate change is the change that can be attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC report, 2022) issued a cautionary statement regarding the imminent attainment of the 1.5oC threshold by the global climate system within the forthcoming 20-year period. It further emphasized that only implementing exceedingly stringent reductions in carbon emissions, commencing at present, would serve as a viable measure to avert an impending ecological catastrophe.

Droughts: A time in which circumstances are significantly drier than average is referred to as a drought.

Floods: A flood is an abnormally large outpouring of water (or, on very rare occasions, other fluids) that covers normally dry ground.

Livelihoods: The term “livelihood” refers to a collection of activities that are carried out during one’s lifetime and are considered necessary to one’s day-to day existence. Obtaining necessities such as water, food, fodder, medication, shelter, and clothing are examples of such activities.

Introduction

India’s policy in agriculture sector began in 1950 with a conscious effort to meet out the food needs of Indian population in view of famines but later on shifted to develop the agriculture education and research system for enhancing the productivity of staple crops and develop competent human resource to build skilled man power to strengthen agriculture and solve the problem of food & nutritional security at the nation level (1960,s to 1990,s) to the solution of global problems in agriculture through global solutions (2000,s onward) by forging the regional and global international corporation at different levels.

The closing years of the second decade of 21st century brought one of the most remarkable transitions in the international cooperation for strengthening the agriculture research and education in the history of agriculture in India. In most of the world the transition from a resource-based to a science-based system of agriculture is occurring within a single century.

Science, Technology and Skill Development in 21st Century

In the twenty first century, science and technology are viewed as the drivers of Indian economic growth; and agricultural R&D is expected to play a significant role in the process. Agriculture research and development is being affected by research and development at international level.

India faced a series of famines from 1857 to 1901, for which the government was forced to appoint some commissions. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the establishment of a separate Department of Agriculture at both the central and provincial levels. Based on such recommendations, the Agricultural Departments were established in 1981–1982, and some acts like the Land Improvement Act and Agricultural Loans Act, 1988 and Co- operative Act, 1904 were passed and development departments were established. As a protection measure, some irrigation projects were created. The Famine Commission (1901) also recommended for establishment of Agricultural Research Stations and Colleges. The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute along with an Agricultural College was established at Pusa Institute. As per the Government India Act of 1919, all departments connected with rural development to the major provinces and agricultural development became a State subject. Rural Development works were made provincial subjects from 1935. Various diversified efforts for rural reconstruction were made for the development of extension in India during the Pre- Independence and Post- Independence periods. These extension programs were launched in four stages as indicated below.

Stage I: Pre- Independence Extension

Stage II: Post- Independence Extension (1947–1953)

Stage III: Community Development and National Extension service (1953–1960)

Stage IV: Intensive Agricultural Development (1960 onwards)

Pre- independence extension in India

Between 1903 and 1946, eight important area- specific programs were implemented for rural development while the Grow More Food Campaign was implemented in the entire country to increase food grains production. The description of these programs/projects is given below in brief.

Introduction

Communication is a process for exchanging ideas, facts, feelings, or impressions between two or more individuals for a common understanding. Communication is required for transferring technology or obtaining farmer feedback to adopt technology in the field. Good communication is the essence of good teaching. Communication is a whole learning process in which the teacher sends a message through a channel to the receiver as a means of teaching. In traditional extension, there was direct contact between the extension worker and farmer to communicate research innovations and to obtain farmer feedback. In this system, only a few farmers had direct contact with the extension worker while the majority of farmers were contacted less frequently. Daniel Benor has tried to improve traditional extension through a “training and visit” (T & V) system designed to emphasize the organizational and training components of extension and improve communication with the farmers. In considering extension as a vehicle for communicating with large numbers of farmers without any discretion, the communication process and its role in extension need to be followed by the extension workers.

what is Communication?

Communication is a process of transferring a message from a source (communicator) through a channel to the receiver (communiqué). It is defined by different scientists in a different manner keeping the intent in view. However, it is accepted that communication is a process where a message is transferred from the source (communicator) to the receiver (communiqué). Some definitions of communication are indicated below.

• J. Paul Leagan (1961) defines communication as a process where two or more individuals exchange ideas, facts, and impressions for mutual gain and common understanding of the content and use of a message.

• “Communication is a purposeful process, which involves sources, messages, channels, and receivers.” – Andersch et al. (1969).

Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) defined communication as the process of sending and receiving messages through channels that establish a common meaning between a source and receiver.

Gender Concepts

Gender is different from sex. Sex is the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as female or male. Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being female and male and to the relationships between women and men and girls and boys. Sex symbolizes biological differences between men and women whereas gender is recognized as a social characteristic that cuts across caste, class, occupation, age, and ethnicity. Gender identifies the social relations between men and women and gender differentiates the roles, responsibilities, resources, constraints, and opportunities of women and men. Gender roles are dynamic which change over time. In contrast, sex identifies the biological differences between men and women. The difference between gender and sex is indicated in Table 12.1.

Although women and men enjoy equal status in the law of the constitution, there exists a wide difference in how men and women are looked upon and handled by society. It is the society that has nurtured the ‘Gender gap’, as it is a socially constructed attribute of being male and female, by assigning roles and responsibilities with respect to one’s gender.

In order to address gender issues, it is imperative that we understand the different fundamental gender concepts to deal with them effectively.

Gender roles: Men and women have multiple roles. Women have productive, reproductive, and management of community assets roles whereas men have productive and other roles. Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given society/community, or other special group, that condition which activities, tasks, and responsibilities are perceived as male and female. Gender roles are affected by age, class, race, ethnicity, religion, and geographical, economic, and political environment. Some common terms relating to gender in use are indicated below.

Entrepreneurship: the Concept and Definitions

Entrepreneurship is the capability to improve, arrange and continue a business enterprise, along with any of its uncertainties to make a profit. We can say an example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business, a new venture with some challenges and specific objectives.

Meaning of Entrepreneur

An entrepreneur is defined as one person who has the ability and desire to establish, administer and succeed in a startup venture along with the risk entitled to it, to make profits. The best example of entrepreneurship is the starting of a new business venture. Entrepreneurs are often known as a source of new ideas or innovators and bring new ideas in the market by replacing old ones with a new invention.

According to Cole (1949), an Entrepreneur represents an individual or a group of individuals, who conceive, initiate and maintain for a sufficiently long period a social institution which produces economic goods or to put it differently.

Communication: Communication is an act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, the information about the person’s need, desires and perceptions. Knowledge or affective states: Communication is an act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, the information about the person’s need, desires, and perceptions. Knowledge or affective states.

Entrepreneurial Communication: It should have some unique features. The way one teacher talk with a student, the way one official personnel talk with an individual, like them one entrepreneur should communicate with their customer to uplift of their enterprise. So this type of communication differs from the general communication.

In this chapter, the importance of seafood in terms of their nutrition, and different methods of processing are dealt. Seafood quality and safety terminologies are explained briefly. The quality parameters affected by rigor mortis in raw, iced and cooked fish are given. Phenomenon of gaping described with reference to rigor mortis. Quality dimension of seafood is explained with intrinsic and extrinsic parameters. Various intrinsic factors affecting seafood quality such as f ish species, seasonal changes, parasite infestation and capture conditions are discussed in detail. The next part elucidates the sensory parameters affecting the seafood quality describing the objective and subjective method of quality assessments. Objective method covers both descriptive and discriminative tests. The final part mentions the Codex guidelines available for the conduction of seafood sensory assessment. At the end, the reader gains the knowledge on the basic information about seafood, role of rigor mortis in affecting seafood quality and the sensory quality assessment methods.

Objective

To learn the nutritional importance of seafood and their processing; rigor mortis and their role in seafood quality, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting seafood quality and sensory quality assessment methods.

1.1. Importance of Seafood

Seafood has been traditionally a part of diet in many parts of the world. In some countries like India, it constitutes the main supply of animal protein among coastal population. Seafood is a low-calorie food and easily digestible compared to other protein-rich meat and poultry products and hence, it is a good choice for elderly persons to obtain their daily protein requirements. Seafood has high-quality quality enriched with all the essential amino acids required for human health. It provides about 1/3rd of the average recommended daily allowance (RDA) of protein.

Introduction

This chapter is intended to throw light on some statistical and econometric methods used for analysing time series data with specific emphasis on basic concepts related to time series analysis, co-integration techniques as well as forecasting techniques such as ARIMA model. Time series analysis is often helpful in revealing the broad patterns associated with longitudinal data, which in turn would aid in important economic and policy decisions. In fisheries sector too, economic variables such as market demand and supply, prices, etc. are of prime importance and often come in longitudinal format. There are a number of alternative methodologies available in the time series literature to determine relevant parameters pertaining to longitudinal data and the ensuing sections are set apart to delve deeper into this realm.

Some Key Concepts

Stationary Stochastic Process

A random or stochastic process is a collection of random variables ordered in time. A stochastic process is said to be stationary if its mean and variance are constant over time and the value of covariance between two time periods depend only on the distance or the gap between the two time periods and not the actual time at which the covariance is computed. In the time series literature, such a stochastic process is known as a weekly stationary or second order stationarity or covariance stationarity.

Setting

The basic difference which dovetails most of the animal breeding experiments is the unbalancedness of the data collated with respect to factorial classes thereby making non-orthogonal nature of the effects involved ubiquitous. Henderson, C.R. (1953), through a series of seminal works dealt with these types of data and came out with three distinct methods to estimate the variance components emanating out of such non-orthogonal animal experiment data. Before discussing those methods, let us delve a bit on the challenges in estimating the variance components in animal breeding data. There are two major reasons, first, several methods of estimation are available (most of which are reduced to the analysis of variance method for balanced data), but not one of them has yet been clearly established as superior to the others. Second, all the methods involve relatively cumbersome algebra; discussion of unbalanced data can therefore easily deteriorate into a welter of symbols, a situation which functions as the anti-appetizer to applied researchers.

A safe starting point towards understanding the nuances of dealing with unbalanced data could be the paper by Henderson (1953) which is quite seminal in nature. The methods described have been often referred to as the gold standard in the area of estimating variance components from unbalanced data for many years to come. Of the three, method 1 is simply an analogue of the analysis of variance method used with balanced data and method 2 is used to correct a deficiency of method 1 that arises out of mixed models and the last one is quite different and involves the method of fitting constants so often used in fixed effects models. Let us see these methods in a bit more detail in the ensuing passages.

Introduction

Regression analysis is one of the most widely used techniques for studying relationships involving multiple variables for analysing data by expressing a relationship between a variable of interest (the response) and a set of related predictor variables. The regression models include linear and non linear approaches assuming appropriate functional forms. A good account on regression analysis and related topics can be found in Draper and Smith (1998), Montgomery et al. (2001), Chatterjee and Hadi (2006) etc. In this write-up, regression model fitting, some of the detection techniques which are useful in detecting the problem of multicollinearity between the so-called ‘independent variables’ and also outlier detection in data are discussed. Linear regression with qualitative regressor variables is also discussed. Moreover, variable selection procedures, goodness of fit measures for model adequacy and validation are also discussed. In addition, non-linear regressions viz., logistic (both binary and multinomial) when the response variable is qualitative are also covered.

Multiple Linear Regression Modeling

Let the response variable (variable to be forecasted) be denoted by Y and the set of predictor variables, by X1 , X2 , …, Xp , where p denotes the number of predictor variables. The true relationship between Y and (X1 , X2 ,…,Xp ) can be approximated by a multiple linear regression model given by

Introduction

Trout farming is considered as one of the oldest forms of commercial fish production and dates back to 400 years in Europe and about 150 years in US (Hinshaw, 1990). In India, the upper Himalayan region and Western Ghats are the areas where trout culture and farming are restricted due to suitable climatic conditions. The UT of J&K, especially Kashmir region plays a major role towards trout culture, thus being major contributor of trout as well. In Kashmir, the introduction of trout started in the year 1899 with the arrival of first batch of Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) ova of 10,000 eyed eggs from England (UK). This introduction of trout eggs to Kashmir was assisted by the Duke of Bedford. Woefully, this batch of 10,000 eggs expired on the way due to the unavailability of air transport. Then, the second batch of trout ova arrived in the year 1900 in a magnificent condition from Howeiton in Scotland, assisted by Mr. J.S. Macdonall consisting of 1800 fry. Out of these 1000 swim-up fry were successfully reared up to the adulthood and the first spawning or eggtaking of Salmo trutta fario, was done in December 1905 at Harwan near Srinagar (Kashmir) by F. J. Mitchell and rest of 800 fry were reared at his personal residence in Bhag - i - Dilawar Khan in the heart of city near Khankah-i-Moula. In 1905-1906, Mitchell succeeded in establishing a regular Trout Hatchery at Harwan Srinagar Kashmir, having a capacity of 100,000 green eggs. Since then brown trout has established itself throughout the Kashmir and parts of Jammu notably in Baderwah and Poonch providing f ly and spoon fishing year after year to thousands of anglers visiting the state.It was from Kashmir that brown trout spread to other sections of the Himalayas. In 1912, Mitchell succeeded in hatching and rearing rainbow trout eggs from a consignment presented to him by the Bristol Water Works England. Today J&K Fisheries Department has achieved remarkable success in trout culture (Hassan and Pandey 2012). In the year 1984, Trout Fish Farming Project was established at Kokernag under cold water fisheries by the assistance of European Economic Community, serving as mother unit for the production of quality seed of Rainbow trout and Brown trout.This project provided a major thrust to the trout fisheries in the UT of J&K from last two decades.Besides this, there is another trout hatchery at Laribal Srinagar where quality trout seed of rainbow trout and brown trout is being produced (Hassan and Pandey 2012).

Fisheries: A glance

The fisheries sector is a complex enterprise that includes capture and culture based fisheries, including mariculture, coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture, and cold-water fish culture that contribute to the country’s food, health, economy, exports, employment, and tourism. Fisheries and aquaculture continue to provide millions of people with food, nutrition, revenue, and a means of subsistence. Fish is an inexpensive and high-quality source of animal protein, making it an excellent choice for reducing hunger and malnutrition in the country. In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a new high of 122.6 million tonnes, including 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals valued at USD 264.8 billion. Inland aquaculture produced 54.4 million tonnes, while marine and coastal aquaculture made 68.1 million tonnes. Over time, the Indian fishing industry evolved and became a significant socioeconomic asset for the country (FAO, SOFIA, 2022) India is the world’s third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, accounting around 16% of total inland and 5% of total marine fish production. In 2021 22. The overall marine and inland fish production in India was 162. 48 lakh tonnes, with 121.21 lakh tonnes and 41.27 lakh tonnes coming from the inland and marine sectors, respectively. The fishing industry is vital to the national economy and is a major contributor to the country’s foreign exchange gains. India’s fish production has risen from 56.56 lakh tonnes in 2000-01 to 162.48 lakh tonnes in 2021-22.The majority of fish produced is for human consumption, and this proportion is predicted to increase from 89% in the base year (2016-18) to 91% by 2028 (OECD/FAO, 2019). In 2021-22, frozen f ish, cuttlefish, and squid contributed 6%, 3%, and 5% of total marine product export value, respectively.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal grains in the world today and serves as a staple food source for more than half of the world’s particularly in India, China and a number of other countries in Africa and Asia. It occupies an area of about 161 million hectares at global level wi`th production of 503.8 million tones milled basis. More than 90% of the rice is produced and consumed in Asian countries. (FAO United Nation 2017).

Rice provides 21 percent of global human per capita energy and 15% of per capita protein. Although rice protein ranks high in nutritional quality among cereals, protein content is modest. Rice also provides minerals, vitamins, and fiber, although all constituents except carbohydrates are reduced by milling.

Rice commodity recognized as a supreme commodity to mankind, because rice is truly life, culture and tradition. It has its own history and religious importance in human life. India is one of the world’s largest producers of white rice. For India, like many other developing countries, the issue of feeding ever increasing population is of prime importance, this problem can be solved by maximizing agricultural production through use of high yielding varieties and adopting improved package of practices of rice crop. India is facing the challenges of food and fodder production to meet the demand of rising human and cattle population. One of the major causes of this problem is low level of adoption of improved agricultural practices by the farmers. Population www.thecropsite.com

There are three seasons for growing rice in India viz. autumn, winter and summer. The main rice growing season in the country is kharif. It is known as winter rice as per the harvesting time. The sowing time of kharif rice is June – July and it is harvested in September - October. India is an important centre of rice cultivation. The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. North-Eastern India), stretching through Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Southern China, while the japonica variety was domesticated from wild rice in Southern China which was introduced to India. Perennial wild rice still grows in Assam and Nepal.

Introduction

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important commercial vegetable crop cultivated extensively in India and it belongs to the family Alliaceae. It is used both in green and mature stage for salad and spice in a variety of flavoured dishes and soups Onion is liked for its flavour and pungency which is due to the presence of a volatile oil ‘allyl propyl disulphide’- an organic compound rich in sulphur. Onion bulb is a rich source of minerals like phosphorus, calcium and carbohydrates. It also contains protein and vitamin C. It is being used in several ways as a fresh, frozen, dehydrated bulbs and green bunching types. Dehydrated onion is in great demand which reduces transport cost and storage losses. Onion has got good medicinal value. It contains several anti-cancer agents which have shown to prevent cancer in animals. The beneficial compound called ‘quercetin’ present in onion has shown to be powerful antioxidant. Extracts of onion are being used in the prevention of ‘atherosclerosis’ and ‘coronary heart disease’. onion extensive culinary, dietary, therapeutic, trading, income and employment generation value. Onion is commodity of mass consumption and is grown almost all over the country mainly by small and marginal farmers (Shukla and Singh-2018).

A global review of onion area and production revealed that onion is grown in the world in an area of 43.64 lakh hectares with a total production of 873.44 lakh tons and productivity of 21.79 tons/ha. China and India are leading onion growing countries with a total production of 247.00 and 159.40 lakh tons, respectively during the year 2017. India produces around 174 lakh tons of onion annually ranking second in the world. Currently in India the production of onion 31129 million tons with the cultivated of 1914 lakh hectares in 2021-22 observed respectively. Among the different onion growing states Maharashtra tops in area and production. (https://www.districts of india.com).

Introduction

Humans primarily get their nourishment from agriculture. According to the most recent UN estimates, the population of the globe could increase to over 9.7 billion in 2050, and to fulfill the demands of an expanding population and a rising need for food, the energy demand in the agricultural sector has dramatically expanded. However, a farm that produces food needs a steady supply of energy to run the machinery, irrigation pumps, and other devices that are often powered by fossil fuels. Because of the ongoing demand for energy, there is growing concern that these fossil fuels will also run out soon (Aroonsrimorakotet al., 2020). Additionally, other global issues like climate change, water shortage, and energy security are just a few variables affecting agricultural production that require more environmentally friendly and sustainable farming methods As a result, it is crucial to maximize land usage and increase agricultural production through the deployment of cutting-edge farming techniques and new technology for both economic effectiveness and the best possible use of the limited resources available in the form of land. There are many distinct uses for renewable energy in agricultural systems. Renewable energy sources can also be used to generate electricity for a range of agricultural tasks (Torshizi and Mighani, 2017). Renewable energy can come from a variety of sources, but solar energy is the ideal option because it can be installed practically anywhere on the field, is pollution-free, and is also the most economical. Unlike the usage of fossil fuels, using solar energy doesn’t release greenhouse gases. For remote locations with erratic access to electricity, it is the best renewable energy choice. Applications for space and water heating, greenhouse heating, solar photovoltaic systems, and water pumps for irrigation using various forms of solar energy technology (Mekhilefet al., 2013). There are numerous benefits of using solar energy technologies, such as solar panel water pumping systems, aside from being free of fuel costs, solar panels also have lower maintenance costs and require fewer replacement components than generators powered by diesel engines. In order to meet the growing demand for agricultural products from the expanding population, agriculture is a sector that aspires to accept the usage of solar energy and reaps enormous benefits from it. Therefore, solar energy technology has emerged as a solution in order to boost economic benefits to farmers and improve the environment by reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, thereby addressing the issues caused by a growing population and a shrinking amount of available resources (Aroonsrimorakot and Laiphrakpam, 2019). The potential for farmers to move from using fossil fuels to using renewable alternative energy, which might lead to produce superior in both quantity and quality of food produced in various kinds of agricultural farms (Bardi et al., 2013). The issue will get worse unless the farmers change their perception about the adoption of solar energy technologies. Therefore, it is advised for farmers to employ energy-saving tools for producing crops and to maximize land by installing solar energy systems because they are practical, affordable, and useful for a variety of tasks (Duprazet al., 2011). Since many people still solely rely on fossil fuels for energy and lack access to modern energy sources, in light of this, the current study was done to assess the level of awareness and adoption of solar energy in agricultural operations.

1. Introduction

Milk is the principal source of protein and lactose in the diet. Dairy farming is viewed as a whole ecosystem of reciprocal relationships and reliance, as well as there production and safe guarding of societal values. Dairy farms are primarily made up of high-yielding dairy cows. Goats, sheep, and camels are some of the other animals employed in commercial dairy production. Milk has always been regarded as a healthy food. Milk includes more than9 other essential elements, including protein, carbs,vitamins, minerals, and lipids, in addition to calcium, which makes it critical for your bones.

Every year, about 600 million tonnes of milk are produced by over 264million dairy cows across the world. The global average for milk output per cow is around 2,200 litres. India is the world’s top milk producer followed by the United States, China,Pakistan, and Brazil. The economy of India is mostly dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry, with milk production playing a significant role. It is also the world’s largest producer of buffalo milk (FAO, 2019).

Co-operative dairy sector proved to be resilient as it continued to procuremilk from farmers and supply it to the consumers despite several logistical and other challenges. Milk production in India did not show any sign of slowdown. Milk productionis anticipated to be around 209.96 million tonnes in 2020-21, an increase of about 6.3 percent over the previous year. The estimated per capita availability of milk is expected to increase to about 425 gms /day which is more than the world average of around 315gms/day(NDDB,2020).The dairy co-operatives had a difficult year due to an influx of more milk production, a reduction in milk sales, and the building of inventories of preserved goods. Throughout the year, milk procurement by dairy co-operatives increased as it accepted diverted extra milk from farmers that would otherwise be sold to private and unorganized businesses. During the 2020-21 budget year, milk procurement by dairy co-operativesincreased by 7.9 per cent. Indian dairy co operatives have installed milk processing capacity of 66.3million litters per day,73.3million liters/day in private sector enterprises, and 2.5 million litres per day in producer companies.

Introduction to Antibiotic Discovery

Antibiotics are the drugs that are used to treat illnesses caused by bacteria in humans and animals. These act by killing or inhibiting the growth and multiplication of bacteria. Antibiotics were considered as “magic bullets” that selectively kills microbes responsible for disease causation, but at the same time would not affect the host (Zaman et al., 2017).

Louis Pasteur in 1877, first discovered the properties of antibacterial compounds with the inhibition of anthrax by saprophytic bacteria. In 1928, Alexander Fleming observed that the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in petri dishes was inhibited by substances produced by the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum, which led to the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin (Aminov, 2017). Selman Waksman, discovered multiple antibiotics from filamentous actinomycetes living in the soil and defined an antibiotic as “a compound made by a microbe to destroy other microbes”. Following the discovery of Penicillin, various antimicrobial compounds such as sulphonamides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, lipopeptides, oxazolidinones, glycopeptides, streptogramins, and quinolones were discovered in the “Golden era” of antibiotics during the period from the 1940s to the 1960s and most of the antibiotics still in current use were discovered during that period (Salam et al., 2023). Millions of metric tons of newer classes of antibiotics have been produced in last 60 years since its inception.

The response of any living cell to a xenobiotic (including antibacterial agent) is significantly affected by the prevailing local environmental conditions. In case of bacterial infection, it may include the presence of other microbes, no matter commensal or pathogenic, or biochemical alterations at that particular site of bacterial infection in host. All these host and bacterial factors play a critical role in the evolutionary responses of bacteria but usually go unconsidered while determining the microbial sensitivity to a particular antibiotic in a clinical setting. These also include the direct and indirect interspecies interactions that can affect the responses of individual bacterial species and surviving microbial communities to a particular antibiotic therapy. These interactions may significantly alter the qualitative and quantitative responses, potential phenotypic changes and the final trajectory of evolution of antimicrobial resistance. Due acknowledgement and plausible interpretation to these interactions may help to reduce the upsurge in AMR and its associated morbidity and fatality and pave path to more proficient clinical success.

The factors participating in drug- microbe interaction can be classified into two broad groups: host factors and microbial factors. The environmental milieu of the interaction is chiefly regulated by the gut microbiota with stressors causing deflections. The gastrointestinal bacteria amend host mental and physiological cadence via microbial metabolites such as butyrate, polyphenolic antioxidants, vitamins, and amines, affecting the overall ready perception and active rebuke to a stimulus. Lifestyle stressors such as fluctuating sleep and erratic eating patterns (western diet) disturb the host circadian system along with the gut microbiome. The overall impact is impaired detoxification (decreased conjugation of bile acids or increased production of hydrogen sulphide), substrate oxidation and energy regulation (reduced butyrate production) in the host affecting the overall health and productivity.

Introduction

The study of infectious diseases, alongside other clinical and natural strengths, is going through fast change introduced on by the approach of reasonable next generation sequencing (NGS) advancements (Koser et al., 2012).These technologies become adopted as routine methods easily, and laboratory techniques are transformed throughout the process. The amount of genomic bacterial data generated is huge. As of this writing, for example, over 200,000 Salmonella genomes alone are in the public domain with hundreds being added weekly. A whole genomic DNA sequence characterizes the maximum practicable level of structural detail on the individuating traits of an microbial organism or population. It can therefore be used to provide more accurate microbial genome recognition, evolutionary relations and a detailed catalogue of epidemiologically important characteristics. This has a significant role to play for outbreak research, diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, microbiology and epidemiology (Allard et al., 2019). Besides, DNA sequences are also a universal dataset which can theoretically be used to determine any biological function. This means that antimicrobial resistant (AMR) can be detected and to track the development and spread of AMR bacteria in a hospital or the community.

1. Introduction

The Indian government’s New Education policy (NEP 2020) is apositive improvement in this covid-19 scourge. The main NEP for India happened in 1968, trailed by NEPs in 1986 and 2020 under Narendra Modi. India passed the NEP 2020 on July 29, 2020. It tries to reform education and make the countrymoretaught. K Kasturirangan, the previousheadofISRO, led- the NEP 2020 arrangement council. The decision Government of India vowed to modernise Indian schooling in it selection pronouncement (Saha Mushkan, 2020). Educationassumes a fundamental part in building a country; it chooses the nation’s future and its kin’s fate. The effect will be sturdy concerning the development and advancement of the stateandsubject. In this day and age, schooling is urgent. Pre-freedom and post-autonomy periods show the extension and progress Indian Government. It will alter the way India studies; this is the third correction to the instruction strategy. National education policy 2020 plans changes for all gatherings (Kalyani Pawan, 2020).

Introduction

In the modern corporate landscape, the Glass Ceiling remains an enduring challenge, obstructing the path to leadership positions for qualified individuals based on gender. This study embarks on a comprehensive analysis of the persistent gender discrimination inherent in leadership roles within corporations.

With a primary focus on measurement, analysis, and assessment, the study seeks to quantify the current prevalence of the Glass Ceiling, elucidate the strategies adopted by large corporations in addressing bias, and evaluate the influence of personal factors in accelerating this phenomenon.

Grounded in empirical data and a commitment to factual precision, this research aims to contribute substantially to the ongoing discourse on gender equality in leadership. By revisiting the Glass Ceiling, this paper endeavours to not only shed light on the existing disparities but also provide nuanced insights that can inform corporate policies and societal endeavours to dismantle barriers obstructing the equitable progression of individuals within the professional realm.

Introduction

Soil is a silent foundation and a dynamic part of Earth’s complex ecosystem. It sustains life, influences plant growth and is involved in various environmental processes. However, the balance of this vital resource is increasingly threatened by the pervasive effects of climate change, manifested by rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and changes in atmospheric conditions. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns change, the relationship between soil and climate poses transformative challenges with far-reaching consequences. This research addresses the complexity of this interaction and examines how climate change affects agriculture, soil health, composition and functionality. Soil health, a holistic concept that includes physical, chemical and biological aspects of soils, is closely linked to climate change. A notable consequence of climate change is the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. These events disrupt the delicate balance of soil ecosystems and lead to erosion, loss of topsoil and reduced fertility. Additionally, increased temperatures contribute to soil moisture depletion, reducing water availability for plants and microorganisms and further compromising soil health. A central issue at the interface between soil science and climate change is the role of soil as a carbon sink. Soils store large amounts of carbon in the form of organic material, thereby influencing the environment.

Introduction

The world’s food and nutritional security are under serious threat from climate change. Climate changes have significant effects on agriculture by affecting insect pests, their natural enemies, and pollinators as illustrated in Fig 1 (Eigenbrode and Adhikari, 2023). According to Benedict (2003), 13.6% of annual crop loss worldwide is attributed to insect pest attack. Crops, crop pests, natural enemies and pollinators are directly and indirectly impacted by erratic climate. The continuous and anticipated alterations in these insects vary across species, systems, and geographical areas, impeding the development of strong generalizations and forecasts. Moreover, the implementation of “climate-smart” agricultural methods, may have additional effects on ideal management of these insects.

Direct effects on insect pests

Temperature: The most reliable, well-researched, and easily modelled component of climate change is warming. Warming affects physiology, phenology, dispersal, reproduction, development, and survival of insect pests (Bale et al., 2002) as illustrated in Fig 2 (Skendži? et al., 2021). It can be inferred that increased herbivory would be associated with rising temperatures in many cases. High temperature and high humidity are key reasons for whitefly population increase (Pathania et al., 2020). Warming can alter the number of insect generations in Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in China (Huang and Hao, 2020).

1.1 Introduction

Water scarcity is seen as a major constraint to intensify agriculture in a sustainable manner as an attempt to meet the food requirements of a rapidly growing human population. The ever-increasing human population, climate change due to increased emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and intensification of agriculture, are putting severe pressure on the world’s two major non-renewable resources of soil and water, and thus pose a big challenge to produce sufficient food to meet the current food demand. The present world population of 7.3 billion people is predicted to grow to over 9 billion by 2050, with the majority of this population increase occurring in developing countries, most of which already face food shortages. A 70% increase in current agricultural productivity will be required to produce sufficient food if these human population growth predictions prove to be correct. In this context, concerted efforts are being made globally to improve the effectiveness of water which will be used for enhancing the production of irrigated crops. Additionally, efforts are also being made to improve water harvesting and water conservation in rain-fed agriculture.

The injudicious use of saline/brackish water is all too often associated with the development of soil salinity, sodicity, ion toxicity, and groundwater pollution. Because of these negative effects, it is important to have a better understanding of exactly how the quality of water influences the management of irrigated agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

6.1 Introduction

Water deficit stress is a serious and frequently encountered abiotic stress in the terrestrial surface. Its deleterious effects on plant growth and productivity are well documented. Plant responses to water stress are believed to be complex as these operate at various levels of plant organization. Several in built physiological and biochemical mechanisms provide resistance to plants against stress. An understanding of the processes linked to these mechanisms is vital for optimizing crop growth and productivity under stress. Plants respond and adapt to water stress by altering cellular metabolism, thus invoking stress tolerance. Alteration in endogenous concentrations of growth regulators along with accumulation of osmolytes, modifications in antioxidant cascade, changes in protein profiles and induction of gene expression in plants under stress are important characteristic metabolic changes that invoke stress tolerance at the cellular level. Alteration in endogenous concentrations of plant bio-regulators under stress helps plants through better turgor maintenance and efficient water usage by influencing stomatal functioning, hydraulic conductivity and morphological adaptation. Progress made in plant adaptation to water stress is an outcome of advances made in analytical techniques on endogenous growth regulator analysis and powerful and reliable molecular and genetic techniques.

7.1 Introduction

Water is one of the most essential natural resources of the planet. Water is also the most critical resource for sustainable development in most of the developing countries. The quantities that are needed for drinking and sanitation purpose of humans are relatively small, and much larger quantities of water are required for many other purposes. It is essential not only for agriculture, industry and economic growth of a country, but also it is the most important component of the environment and ecosystem, with significant impact on overall wealth and nature conservation. Agricultural and industrial activities critically depend on a sufficient amount of fresh water that is withdrawn from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers. Currently, the rapid growth of world population along with the extension of irrigation dependent agriculture, development of industrial sector and climate change are stressing the quantity and quality of the natural water systems. Due to the increasing problems, human have begun to realize that they can no longer follow “use and discard” methodology either with water resources or any other natural resources. As a result, the need for water management has become evident. Climate change has already started to affect the hydrological cycle and the availability of freshwater for agriculture. So, proper water management practices play crucial roles in the food production and the management of ecosystems. Over the last century global irrigated area has increased more than sixfold from approximately 40 million hectares in 1900 to more than 260 million hectares in 2000. Today more than 40% of the world’s food comes from the irrigated cropland which is 18% of the total cultivated crop land. Irrigated area is increased by almost 1% every year and the demand for irrigation water will increase by 13.6% by 2025 (Jensen, 1993). On the other hand about 8-15% of fresh water supply will be diverted from agricultural sector to meet the increased demand of domestic and industrial use. On the other hand the efficiency of irrigation is very low, only 65% of the applied water is used by the crop (Fig. 1). So, to overcome shortage of irrigation water for agriculture, it is essential to increase the water use efficiency in the crop field and to use marginal water for irrigation.

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy derivatives of aldehydes or ketones and undergo all the organic reactions common to the carbonyl groups and hydroxyl groups. The principal milk carbohydrate is lactose. It is a disaccharide. Hydrolysis of lactose with enzyme β-galactosidase yields glucose and galactose.

Lactose is the major carbohydrate present in all types of milk. The first record of isolation of lactose was in 1663, by Bartolettus by evaporation of whey. Milk contains only trace amounts of other sugars, including glucose, fructose, glucosamine, galactosamine, neuraminic acid, and neutral and acidic oligosaccharides.

Lactose plays a significant role in milk and milk products that are

• It plays a major role in the production of fermented dairy products.

• It contributes to the nutritive value of milk and milk products

• It affects the texture of certain concentrated and frozen products;

• It is involved in heat-induced changes in the color and flavor of highly heated milk products.

Status of Lactose

Lactose content varies extensively in the milk of different species. Breed of animal, individuality factors, udder infection, and especially the stage of lactation regulates the lactose content in milk. The lactose concentration in milk decreases gradually and significantly during lactation; this behavior contrasts with the lactational trends for lipids and proteins, which, after a decrease during early lactation, increase significantly during the second half of lactation. Lactose synthesis is hampered during mastitis. Lactose, along with sodium, potassium, and chloride ions, plays the principal role in controlling the osmotic pressure of the mammary system. Thus, any change in lactose content is compensated by a change in the soluble salt constituents. The osmotic relationship between lactose and soluble salts during the secretion of milk partly explains the presence of high lactose in milk with a reduced ash content and vice versa (Table 1).

Being an essential component of the rich Indian past, traditional dairy products and a sophisticated classification of confections have played a significant role in the Indian economy. Depending on how it is processed, it has significant social, cultural, and economic significance. These products have been developed over a long period using a combination of experience, traditional wisdom, and culinary skills. India is emerging as the highest milk- producing country in the world with an annual production of 221.1 million tons in the year 2021–22 (Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, MoFAHD, DAHD, GoI). An estimated 50% of the milk produced in India is used to make a range of traditional dairy products, including paneer, dahi, ghee, khoa, and shrikhand. The product is not only well- established in the Indian market, but it also has significant export potential due to the large Indian diaspora living all over the world.

All native milk products that have developed over time using locally accessible technologies are referred to as traditional Indian dairy products or Indian indigenous milk products. The Indian masses’ economic, social, religious, and nutritional well- being are greatly influenced by traditional dairy products.

Classification of Traditional Indian Dairy Products

Traditional dairy products in India are typically made, packaged, and/or sold using time- honored methods without the use of machinery or meticulous documentation of the procedure. These products do, however, have several technological advantages, including their widespread appeal, reduced cost of production, straightforward manufacturing process, adoption at the rural level or collection center, large profit margin, and abundance of employment opportunities. These products are categorized according to the manufacturing principle.

Vitamins are naturally occurring, vital nutrients that are needed in small amounts. They are important for bone and tissue health, wound healing, growth and development, immune system function, and other biological processes. These vital organic substances serve a variety of biochemical purposes. Vitamins, like minerals, are not biosynthesized by the body. Consequently, in order to maintain our health, we must obtain them from the food we eat or, in rare circumstances, supplements.

Vitamins in Milk

Together with water- soluble vitamins like vitamin C and B complex and provitamins, milk also contains a variety of fat- soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K. Some of these vitamins do, however, have very low concentrations.

Vitamin A (Retinol)

Plant foods contain carotenoids, which are the precursors of vitamin A, whereas animal foods provide preformed vitamin A in the form of retinyl esters.

A key challenge for the years to come is feeding a rapidly growing human population while lowering the impact of food production on the environment. This is particularly true for low and middle-income countries where the demand for animal protein is likely to rise and further increase several folds in existing environmental changes (e.g., droughts, floods, extensive wildfires) have in recent years led to major food crises. To achieve these goals, food production not only needs to be increased, but most of all, good husbandry practices must be followed to reduce its negative impacts on the environment. Several studies have suggested that shifting the human diet towards increased consumption of f ish and seafood could be a solution to the need for protein that would sustain human and environmental health. In fact, fish and seafood consumption is forecast to increase by 27% on the horizon of 2030, mostly sustained by the aquaculture sector, which is expected to grow by 62% during the same period. The aquaculture industry contributes significantly to livelihood, food security, and poverty alleviation, with over 100 million people estimated to rely on aquaculture for their living. Fish is a cheap source of animal protein, and the current per capita consumption of fish in India is around 9 kg per annum, which is compared to the 11 kg recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Presently, the contribution of the fisheries sector to the gross domestic product (GDP) and agriculture GDP has been estimated to be 1.2 and 4.2%, respectively.

Clinical Symptoms

• Gasping for air

• Discoloured gills with trapped materials

• Swollen gills with enhanced mucous secretion

• White to grey spots on the gills

• Diseased fish gather near the outlet of the pond

• Fish become lethargic and remain on the surface waters

Causative Agent: Flavobacterium branchiophilum, Cytophaga spp., Flexibacter spp.

Host (Common sp.)

• Goldfish • Koi carp

• Cichlids • Fighter fish

• Gourami fish

Lipids are a class of organic compounds composed of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) atoms. These classes of biomolecules come together to create the fundamental building blocks that shape and govern the structure and functionality of living cells. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Wilhem Bloor in 1943. Lipids are heterogeneous groups of substances that are insoluble in polar (water) and soluble in non-polar (ether, benzene, and chloroform) solvents. Lipids are the esters of fatty acids and their derivatives. Lipids play a crucial role in both the plant and animal domains. They are widely distributed in plants, but lipids are primarily stored in animal adipose tissues.

Classification of lipids

Lipids are classified into four different groups, as shown below:

1. Simple lipids

2. Complex lipids

3. Derived lipids and

4. Miscellaneous lipids

Amino acids are organic molecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). However, sulfur (S) and selenium (Se) are also found in some cases. Amino acids are essential organic compounds that come together to create proteins, thus making them the fundamental building blocks of proteins. These biomolecules play vital roles in various biological and chemical processes within the human body and are essential for the growth and development of an individual.

Amino acids consist of an acidic group (-COOH), a basic group (-NH2 ), and a side chain (R) or a hydrogen (H) atom, all bonded to the carbon atom. The features of amino acids are due to the side chain because they differ only in their side chain. All amino acids have the same basic structure except proline, which has a cyclic structure.

Various forms of amino acids like alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) or delta (σ) form are found. The position of the amino group (-NH2 ) determines the form of the amino acid, i.e., if the NH2 group is attached to the α-carbon, it is called α-amino acid; if β-carbon, it is called β-amino acid, and so on. Mostly, α-Amino acids are found as the numbering of amino acids is done from the carboxylic group (-COOH).