eChapters

Introduction

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb long-wave radiation emitted from the Sun and the Earth’s surface, and radiate it back to Earth’s atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect. Gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) occur in traces but play crucial roles in controlling the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere. The natural as well as anthropogenic activities have major impacts on the GHGs emissions that include continuously increasing concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere. The heat-trapping properties of these above mentioned GHGs are well established. Different GHGs have different warming potential (radiative forcing) on the global climate system due to their different radiative properties and lifetimes in the atmosphere. Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs modify the energy equilibrium of the climate system which leads to subsequent climate change. They affect the absorption, scattering and emission of radiation within the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface. Globally agriculture is estimated to account for 10%–20% of anthropogenic GHG emissions (Smith and Olesen 2010). Share of contribution of these gases towards global warming are different such as CH₄ 20-25%, CO₂ 40-50% and N₂O 5-10%; with present pace of increment every year 0.41, 0.42 and 0.25%, respectively IPCC, 2019.

Dioscorea alata is commonly called greater yam or larger yam or water yam.  This is the most widely distributed species of yam. This species originated in South East Asia, probably in Burma. From there, it first spread to India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the eastern portion of South East Asia.  Later it served as food for voyagers and thereby spread to other parts of the tropics.  Immigrants from India and Malaysia introduced it to Madagascar, from where it was partially introduced into East Africa and Portuguese and Spanish voyager traders of the 16th century probably introduced it into West Africa and later to West Indies.

Introduction

Traditionally, Indian economy was characterised as an agrarian economy for the reasons that majority of the population were dependant on agriculture and allied activities and more than fifty per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was derived from agricultural sector. However, paradoxically, despite a drastic decline in the share of agricultural sector to GDP wherein it declined from 56.5 per cent in 1950-51 to 15.11 per cent in 2016-17 (Statisticstimes.com) Indian economy is still characterised as an agrarian economy. But, it would not be inappropriate to state that Indian agricultural sector is at crossroads, or it would be rather safe to comment that for any further advancement of the agricultural sector, value addition is imperative. During the post independence period, the sector had witnessed commendable progress attributing to a shift from an undesirable situation of ‘ship to mouth’ to ‘farm to mouth’. It is obvious that as a result of various programmes, projects and schemes tailored for development of agricultural sector, India had attained self sufficiency in food crops and other agricultural/horticultural products. However, the darker side is that the Indian peasants are still deprived of a remunerative price for their products as well as a respected status in the society which in turn is arresting further advancement and progress of the sector. Thus, it could be concluded that future of agricultural sector in India vests on the adoption of appropriate marketing strategies, supply chain management and value addition initiatives for the prosperity of our farming community in specific and agricultural sector in general. It is in this backdrop, the NITI Aayog has proposed various reforms in India’s agriculture sector, including liberal contract farming, direct purchase from farmers by private players, direct sale by farmers to consumers, and single trader license, among other measures, in order to double rural income in the next five years. Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, has been conducting various consultations and seeking suggestions from numerous stakeholders in agriculture sector, in order to devise a strategy to double the income of farmers by 2022.

Abstract

Issues regarding intellectual property rights and their protection are heralded nowadays in the scientific arena both in developed and developing countries. IPR is being given greater attention and importance due to the projected idea that it is a dependable means through which greater skills and knowledge can be utilised to serve as a reliable resource for the upliftment of the economy as well as knowledge dissemination. In context of microorganisms, India does not allow patenting of microbes whichalready exists in nature assuch but genetically modified version of the same microorganism with enhanced and improved efficacy can be patented. The deposition of microorganisms in a culture collection recognized as an international depository authority (IDA) is necessary if intellectual property rights regarding these microbes are to be claimed. An action plan for developing countries towards creating IDAs and preserving the natural gene pool has been evolved. It is likely that IDAs will transform into ‘biological resource centres’ and further into‘global common genetic resources’, with an internationally agreed legal basis for benefit sharing. This chapter is an effort to highlight the genesis of patenting and legalities of patenting microorganism in India.

Biomass, a diverse and renewable resource, holds immense potential as a source of energy, feedstock, and environmental solutions. However, effectively harnessing its benefits necessitates a systematic approach. This chapter introduces the concept of Biomass Management Techniques as a pivotal framework for optimizing the utilization of biomass resources. With a focus on sustainable practices, this chapter delves into various techniques to handle, process, and utilize biomass efficiently. From collection and transportation to storage, conversion, and beyond, Biomass Management Techniques encompass a wide array of methods that ensure the seamless integration of biomass into energy generation, industrial processes, and environmental conservation.

Introduction

Colorimetry is a scientific technique widely used across various fields to quantify the concentration of substances based on their color intensity. Colorimetry is a branch of analytical chemistry that focuses on measuring the absorbance or transmission of light by colored solutions. It utilizes the principles of optics and spectroscopy to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its color intensity. This technique relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the absorbance of light by a solution is directly proportional to its concentration and path length.

Principles of Colorimetry

The fundamental principle of colorimetry lies in the interaction of light with matter. When light passes through or is reflected off a substance, certain wavelengths are absorbed, while others are transmitted or reflected. The color we perceive is due to the wavelengths of light that are reflected back to our eyes. In colorimetry, a photometric measurement is made using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, which quantifies the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a sample.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) are free-living bacteria  having beneficial effect on plants by root colonization. They stimulate plant’s growth. Intensive research work is carried out on use of various PGPR as plant growth promoters on various crops. There are reports which show that PGPR promoted growth and reproductive parameters of cereals, pulses, ornamentals, vegetable crops, plantation crops and even  tree species. The important PGPR used in vegetable crops are Azospirillum, Azotobactor, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria (PSB) and Bacillus subtilis.

INTRODUCTION

Lakes are of immense ecological, economic, and cultural significance, representing integral features within our planet's landscapes. Studies show that there are around 117 million lakes worldwide, constituting about 4% of the Earth's non-glaciated land surface (Verpoorter et al., 2014). These lakes play a crucial role in providing essential services to nearby communities and serve as important centres for recreation and overall well-being. However, the increasing demand for natural resources has led to widespread degradation of these lakes (Jenny et al., 2020). Despite efforts to restore lakes, there is a prevailing perception that such programs often encounter high failure rates (Søndergaard et al., 2007; Gulati et al., 2008; Poikane et al., 2024). This concern is particularly pronounced in less economically developed countries, where populations are highly exposed to the consequences of lake degradation, and monitoring, assessment, and restoration programs may be in nascent stages. Additionally, lakes play a pivotal role in climate regulation, influencing local weather patterns and contributing to global processes such as water and carbon cycles. Recognizing and preserving the significance of lakes is imperative for sustaining ecosystems, ensuring water security, and nurturing the well-being of both the natural environment and human societies. 21o 8’ 55’’ 79o 4’46’’E.

Nagpur situated at coordinates 21o 8’ 55’’ N and 79o 4’46’’E, holds the distinction of being the second capital of Maharashtra. Renowned as the "orange city" and the "city of lakes," Nagpur relies significantly on its lakes as a valuable resource base. The current water supply for the city is primarily sourced from, Kanhan River, Gorewada Lake, and Pench Dam. Futala Lake serves an irrigation purpose, benefitting 84 acres of cultivated agricultural land. Ambazari Lake, on the other hand, caters to the water needs of local residents in the MIDC colony, Hingna area, Nagpur, and supports industrial purposes. Other notable water bodies in Nagpur include Sonegaon, Gandhisagar, Naik, Sakkardara, and Lendi. However, these lakes face severe pollution due to anthropogenic activities such as bathing, washing clothes, and improperly disposing of plastic, paper, oil, and worship materials. Moreover, the lakes Gandhisagar and Lendi are now dried.

Selection is a phenomenon of giving preference to certain individuals in a population to reproduce over other individuals that are deprived of the opportunity to reproduce. In common parlance, it is the process to choose individuals from the herd that are going to produce the next generation and influence the performance of the herd. Performance of a herd is guided by the genes of the parents. In a herd, males give rise to more off springs and hence selection of males is an opportunity to boost cattle husbandry. The contribution of males to the inheritance of polygenic traits is equal with that of females. Hence, it is central to pay equal emphasis while selecting males and females. Selection of sire is more important than dam selection due to numerous reasons. The first reason is that a sire produces more numbers of progenies compared to one dam. Since a sire is called “half the herd”, it determines the performance of the herd. Modern initiatives like artificial insemination and frozen semen technology has further extended the use of sire and highlights the importance of sire selection. Artificial insemination has allowed the superior traits to reach different corners of the globe and this has benefitted the present generation at large. Frozen semen technology together with artificial insemination is milestone to the field of genetics and breeding. It is now possible to

All farmed animals are transported at some stage in their lives, sometimes to places where food is more readily available, sometimes to a different owner or a different place of keeping and sometimes to slaughter. The handling, loading, transporting and unloading of animals can have very substantial effects on their welfare. Wherever   poor welfare associated with the transport of animals is prevented, there is an immediate financial advantage because mortality rates and carcass downgrading are reduced. The attitude towards animals has major consequences on animal welfare during transportation. Therefore, laws and codes of practice can also have significant effects on animal welfare during transport. In order to produce guidelines that can be used to prevent or minimise poor welfare in animals during transport, it is necessary to be aware of the biological functioning of the animals concerned and the attitudes and actions of the people involved in the handling and transport procedures.

The term robot is czech word, first time used by play write Karel Capek, in year 1920, applicable to the forced labour or serfs or slaves. The first commercial, digital and programmable robot, named ‘Unimate’ was built by George Devol in 1954.

Plant disease epidemiology is the study of how plant diseases develop and spread. It involves understanding the causes of diseases, how they spread, and their impact on plants and crops. This knowledge is used to develop strategies for managing and controlling plant diseases, such as predicting outbreaks, breeding resistant plants, and implementing cultural and chemical controls.

Element of an epidemic: Plant disease epidemics develop as a result of the timely combination of the element in plant disease: Susceptible host plant, a virulent pathogen and favourable environmental conditions over a relatively long period of time. Humans may unwillingly help initiate and develop epidemics. Thus, the chance of an epidemic increases when the susceptibility of the host and virulence of the pathogen are greater, as the environmental conditions approach the optimum level for pathogen growth, reproduction and spread and as the duration of all favourable conditions.

Introduction

The transgenic approach can be an effective alternative for the development of biofortified crops when there is limited genetic variation for the targeted nutrient content among the germplasm (Zhu et al. 2007). Transgenic approaches have been used for the simultaneous integration of genes involved in the enhancement of micronutrient concentration as well as reduction in the concentration of antinutrients, resulting in enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients in plants. Development of biofortified crops employing the transgenic approaches, involves a significant amount of time, effort, and resources during the development stage, but it is a cost-effective and sustainable approach in a long run (Garg et al., 2018). For its wide consumption, rice has been targeted to address the global challenge of malnutrition. Vitamin deficiency can be considered as one of the significant challenges that affect poor section of populations due to low affordability. Development of ‘Golden Rice’ with provitamin A (beta-carotene) was recognized as an important breakthrough in this direction by expressing genes encoding PSY and carotene desaturase (Datta et al. 2003). Folic acid (vitamin B9) is important during pregnancy and reducing anemia. Rice was genetically modified to increase folate content (up to 150-fold) by overexpressing genes encoding Arabidopsis GTP-cyclohydrolase I (GTPCHI) and aminodeoxy-chorismate synthase (ADCS) (Blancquaert et al. 2015). Rice has also been targeted to address the global challenge of iron deficiency anemia. Multiple reports indicated an enhance in iron content by overexpressing a number of genes (Lee et al. 2009). Similarly, zinc content was also raised in rice by overexpressing OsIRT1 and mugineic acid biosynthesis genes from barley (HvNAS1, HvNAS1, HvNAAT-A, HvNAAT-B, IDS3) (Lee and An 2009, Masuda et al. 2008).

Much of the post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in developing countries is due to the lack of proper storage facilities. While refrigerated cool stores are the best method of preserving fruits and vegetables they are expensive to buy and run. Consequently, in developing countries there is an interest in simple low-cost alternatives, many of which depend on evaporative cooling which is simple and does not require any external power supply. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after Brazil and China respectively. Storage of fresh horticultural produce after harvest is one of the most pressing problems of a tropical country like India. India’s total fruits and vegetables production is lost during harvest, storage, grading, transport, packaging and distribution in a year which reduces the growers share. Due to their highly perishable nature, about 20-40% of total fruit and vegetable production go waste during various steps of the post-harvest chain, smooth transport and insufficient cool storage space/ facility at farmer’s level and high cost of refrigerated storage so further enhances loss of fruits and vegetables. Temperature and humidity play major role in storage of fruits and vegetables Temperature can be controlled by using energy consuming methods such as air-cooling, hydro-cooling, vacuum-cooling, chilling, ice cooling, freezing, etc.

India is one of the 17 mega biodiversity hot spot of the world contributing to the worlds largest plant resource,from the long stretches of the Eastern Ghats on the east, the greater Himalayan range on the northern planes and Western Ghats on the west. The Eastern Ghats range is unique on its own way to host many valuable flora from time immemorial. The Eastern Ghats are spread over four states from the north east to south east. Among the four states Orissa is one of them consisting of diversified floral resource.

Orchids, more than any other plants, exert a mysterious fascination for most people. All the wild Orchids of tropical regions are highly puzzling and peculiar. These largest spectacular plants of monocot belongs to family Orchidaceae  consisting of more than 17,000 known wild species including 750 genera in the world and the present figure of hybrids among these touches around 80,000 (Rao, T.A., 1998). This family is cosmopolitan in nature having more species in tropics than the temperate regions. This family of monocotyledonous plants has evolved from prototypes of the lily and amaryllis family and is note worthy for the wide variety of its highly specialized and curiously modified forms.

ABSTRACT

Biotransformation is an essential step in the elimination of drugs and reduction of their toxicity. The use of fungi in biotransformation reactions can provide information about the metabolism of new drugs and facilitate the attainment of necessary amount of metabolites for toxicological and pharmacological evaluation. Biotransformation studies require the right choice of the microorganisms and also of the culture conditions (pH, substrate, oxygen, salts, temperature, etc). The optimization of these procedures is essential to achieve good results. The fundamental aspects of drug biotransformation by fungi are discussed here as well as some applications showing that many fungi are used in biotransformation studies, mainly Cunninghamella species. Several species mimic the mammalian metabolism producing the same metabolites observed in humans.

Introduction

A Brief Overview of Industry 4.0

It is widely agreed that foundational technologies such as 5G, IoT, Robotics, Nano-Tech, Brain-Computer Interface (BCI), Neural Networks, Quantum Computing, Cost-efficient and low-emission Transportation, and Sustainable Power have coalesced to give birth to industry 4.0.

Industry 4.0, sometimes also designated as the fourth wave of Industrial Revolution, is all about transforming traditional manufacturing and related industrial practices through various digital technologies. It represents a paradigm shift characterized by the amalgamation of multiple technologies such as computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), convergence, artificial intelligence (AI), big data, and automation into a unified protocol for application in the industrial processes.

At its core, Industry 4.0 emphasizes the interconnectedness and intelligent communication between machines, products, and people. It revolutionizes production and operational methods by enabling machines to operate semi autonomously and make decentralized decisions. This allows for increased f lexibility, efficiency, and customization within manufacturing processes.

Key elements of Industry 4.0 include the digitization of manufacturing, smart factories, and the use of data-driven technologies to optimize production. It incorporates concepts such as predictive maintenance, where machines predict their own maintenance needs, and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), allowing devices and systems to communicate, analyze, and optimize processes in real-time.

Solanaceous Vegetables

Solanaceous vegetables are also infested heavily by several major insect pests.

Brinjal Solanum melongena L.
 
Fruit and shoot borer Leucinodes orbonalis Gunnee (Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae)

Economic importance: Most destructive pest of brinjal, found throughout the country. Besides brinjal, the pest is also known to infest potato, bitter gourd, pea pods, cucurbits and other solanaceous etc. The infestation on brinjal can be as high as 70 per cent. The pest is active throughout the year, except in severe cold weather in North India.
 
Mark of identification and life cycle: Moths wings are white with pinkish or black tings and are ringed with small hair along the apical and anal margins. The fore wings are ornamented with a number of black, pale and light brown spots. Female lays 80-120 creamy white eggs, singly or in batches of 2-4 on the underside of leaves, on green stems, flower buds or the calyces of fruits. Caterpillars are creamy when young, but light pink when full-grown in 9-28 days. Pupate in tough silken cocoons among the fallen leaves with period of 6-17days and adult survive for 2-5days of its life cycle. A single life-cycle takes 22 - 25 days extending up to 74 days during winter and there may be 8 - 12 generations in a year.

Abstract

Abiotic stresses have been a serious challenge for sustainable agriculture particularly vegetable cultivation characterized by decreased endurance against stresses like drought, temperature fluctuation and salinity. In India, drought and salinity being major abiotic stresses affect an area of 16% and 4.28%, respectively. Plant Breeders have to face many impediments while developing stress tolerant varieties. Developing tolerant varieties is quite difficult as tolerance varies with the developmental stages and has complex inheritance. This can be understood well by studying ontogeny of plants. Drought varies in time of occurrence, severity and duration. Field screening for tolerance is very difficult because of various interactions like drought × high temperature, high temperature × salinity interactions etc. Artificial screening in different stresses could be an alternative approach. The varieties developed with higher inputs at research stations fail to perform at farmers’ fields due to high genotype × environment interactions. Cultivated species have less genetic variability for abiotic stress tolerance but tolerance can be enhanced by using diverse and heterogeneous population. Though wild species possess genes for tolerance but these genes are closely linked with the undesirable gene(s) e.g. in tomato where S. cheesmanii, S. peruvianum, S. pimpinellifolium and S. sitiens have undesirable traits which affect yield and quality adversely.

The green buildings are the needs of present day in India as well in the world. The easy availability of most of the green materials and equipments in the country has made it easier for designers to adopt local materials to a very large extent in the construction of green buildings. Now, there is an imminent need for service providers, who would be required in large number, not in hundreds but in thousands, as the movement is heading to reach greater heights. The green building movement is here to stay for the benefit of individuals, society and the country at large in the era of climate change.

With increase in the urbanization and industrialization, there is more pressure on available land and natural resources. In coming era, there will be only limited space available for city dwellers. In buildings one can grow a wide range of flowering and foliage plants. Plants not necessarily one confined to the outdoor only but bed room, kitchen, staircases, patios, windows and other locations can be made green with suitable plants. Indian Council of Green Building (ICGB) has developed the rating system.

Green Building in Santiago, Chile

A large amount of materials are used and energy consumed in construction and operation of average building. Many steps have been taken to reduce consumption of energy by developing new types of vehicle, energy sources, recycled materials and designing environment friendly buildings. These buildings are also known as green buildings or green construction or sustainable building.