eChapters

Abstract

Agricultural practices prior to the eighteenth century were completely dependent on crop landraces and their mixtures. The knowledge of plant genetics and its application to crop improvement programmes led to increase the production potential of agriculture. Contrary to this, the wonders of crop improvement have resulted in the erosion of genetic diversity of many crops in farmers’ fields, including wheat, due to the replacement of landraces and farmers’ old cultivars with modern high-yielding cultivars.

Wheat is cultivated over an area of 216.6 million hectare globally and the production is 674.9 million tons. The seven largest producers of wheat are China, India, the Russian Federation, the USA, France, Turkey and Canada. During 2012-13, India produced 92.46 million tons of wheat from 29.65m ha area with productivity of 31.19q/ha (4th Advance Estimates, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India). Three wheat species namely, T. aestivum L., T. durumDesf. and T. dicoccumSchubl are grown in India as commercial crops covering 95, 4 and 1 percent area, respectively. The cultivation of T. dicoccumis confined largely to the regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Abstract

Genetic diversity of thirty two rice genotypes from different states of India was evaluated through Mahalanobis’s D2statistic under integrated fertilizer management for fourteen yield and quality characters. The genotypes were grouped in to seven different clusters. Cluster I had nine genotypes. Three genotypes each were included in cluster II, cluster IV and cluster VII, whereas six and seven genotypes in cluster III and cluster V, respectively while the cluster VI had only one genotype. The results revealed that the geographic diversity might not always be related to genetic diversity. Kernel length after cooking, days to maturity and kernel breadth contributed maximum towards divergence indicating their importance in choice of parents for the hybridization programme.

Abstract

The Directorate of Sorghum Research has explored 9 states for sorghum germplasm during 2000 – 2011. The sorghum landrace collections are mostly named with the village name prefixed to the landrace (ex. tongraligaon maldandi, sultanpur maldandi etc), landraces are also named based on the grain colour (ex. tella jonna, bili jola etc.) and size (ex. moti rabi jowar), ear head compactness (ex. mudda jola), use of the stem, ear head or grain (ex. dagdi, gundu, allur, broom etc.) for varieties utilities. The landraces are being grown by farmers over the years for many reasons. The moli jowar grains are attractive and fetch higher price in the market compared to other released varieties in Madhya Pradesh. Some are used for specific food preparations. The irungu cholam flour is boiled with water to prepare food. The mathappu cholam is used to prepare a jelly like food known as khali in Tamil Nadu. The beed maldandi and bidri from Maharashtra are used to make quality jowar roti. Karnataka’s kodumurugu jola and allina jola are used to make laddu’s and pappads respectively. Broomcorn jowar from Uttarakhand are used for roti, cattle and poultry feed making. The allur jola from Karnataka is used to prepare allu dish during the nagapanchami (festival of snake god). The pachcha jonna from Andhra Pradesh, barmuda local, deshi chari and gudli local from Rajasthan and bendri dagdi and khondya from Maharashtra are very good fodder types. Valsangh maldandi local, Vadgaon dagdi maldandi, tongraligaon maldandi, tongraligaon dagdi, sultanpur local dagdi, sultanpur maldandi, harni jogdi (dagdi), harni jogdi, chungi maldandi, musti local (Maldandi), chungi kuch-kachi, baddi jowar, chakur maldandi from Maharashtra, and sai jonna from Andhra Pradesh are considered by the farmers as drought tolerant landraces. In Andhra Pradesh, Koya’s (tribe) grow konda jonna. Lambada’s used to grow the maghi sorghum landraces extensively in the state. The tribal community mainly uses the accessions as food and some are used for both food & fodder. The accessions collected from the higher elevation and remote forest area is source material for pest & disease resistance. The accession IC 347574 is used as the tribal food. The accession IC 347583 is a guinea race and IC 347585 is a durra-guinea race sorghum collected at an elevation of 500 feet from the tribal village. In Gujarat,Gomati (tribe) grow deshi jonna landraces. In Madhya Pradesh, Rewa district is the maximum deshi jowar cultivation region. This area is commonly called “Junariwala Shetra”. Mehran, Swarguor, and Kushwaha are the main tribes cultivating the jowar in these regions. In Maharashtra, Korukoo’s tribe grows somgi and deshi jonna landraces. They cultivate sorghum with lablab, chillies, cotton, redgram, and tomato at the height of 650 – 870 m from MSL. Maximum diversity of the sorghum still exists in the disturbed forests. Due to extend of its natural variability, India exists as the secondary origin of sorghum.

Abstract

While harnessing the benefits of genetically modified (GM) crops, in terms of increased yield, better nutritional quality and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, it is important to undertake biosafety and risk assessment studies in a systematic manner to allay the concerns of their impact on the environment and especially on the genetic diversity. Since Bt cotton is the only commercialized GM crop in India, this paper reports on the monitoring of unintentional introgression of transgene(s)/ regulatory elements of four commercialized Bt cotton events, covering 99.5% of the area under cultivation, in 180 ex situ cotton accessions conserved in the National Gene Bank at National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays. Based on the real-time event-specific and conventional transgene-specific PCR assays, no amplification signals specific to two major Bt cotton events MON531, MON15985; transgenes/markers/ regulatory elements of 4 widely cultivated commercialized Bt cotton events, i.e., cry1Ac, cry2Ab, marker genes, i.e., nptII (neomycin phosphotransferase), aadA (aminoglycoside-3’-adenyltransferase) and uidA (?-D-glucuronidase) marker genes, CaMV35S, nos (nopaline synthase) promoters and nos terminator were detected in any of the cotton accessions. The study shows that the cotton accessions conserved in National Gene Bank are GM free and the study can be used as a model for monitoring the adventitious presence of unintended mixing of cotton seed during seed production or harvesting in Bt cotton growing states of India. On similar lines, adventitious presence of transgenes can be checked in ex situ collections of different crops conserved in the genebanks.

Abstract

A profile study of organic pigeonpea growers was conducted during 2007-08 in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state. Two taluks namely, Gulbarga and Jewargi were selected based on highest area under organic pigeonpea cultivation. One hundred twenty respondents were selected with simple random sampling procedure, to know (1) the practices followed by farmers in organic pigeonpea cultivation and (2) the forward linkage activities followed by organic pigeonpea growers. The study revealed that majority of respondents (63.33 %) had medium level knowledge about organic pigeonpea farming practices, with regard to individual organic farming practices, majority of respondents had knowledge about the practices like recommended seed rate (81.60%), recommended sowing time (98.33 %), application of FYM (100%), crop rotation (96.67%), pheromone traps (98.33%), NPV (100%) and NSKE (100%). With regard to post harvest operations, cent percent of respondents graded the produce manually and jute bags used to store the produce, whereas, 71.67% of the respondents sold later when price was suitable in regulated market (90.00%) through commission agents (77.50%) and got price information by personnel visit/phone call to regulated market (81.67%) and others who visited the market (68.33%). But no farmer certified the produce and sold at premium price. With regards to personal characteristics, majority of respondents (31.62 %) were illiterate, 59.17 per cent were had joint family, 61.17 per cent were having low farming experience, 60.83 per cent of respondents were big land holders and 69.17 per cent of respondents possessed medium level of scientific orientation.

Abstract

Many people’s food and livelihood security depend on the sustained management of various biological resources that are important for food and agriculture. Agro biodiversity is the result of the interaction between the environment, genetic resources and management systems and practices used by culturally diverse peoples. The management of agro biodiversity by the indigenous communities is for a variety of reasons. The land use types, land use stages, aspect, soil fertility, availability of water and quality seed of crops etc. are essential variables which an indigenous farmer considers while cultivating a diversity of traditional landraces in the farm for food security. India is the largest producer of many kinds of millets, which are often referred as coarse cereals. However, realizing the nutrient richness of these grains they are now considered as nutria-cereals. Small millets, as a group includes several grain crops namely finger millet (ragi), proso millet, barnyard millet, italian millet, kodo millet and little millet. In the four decades since 1961, the area under millets declined by nearly 50% from about 18 million hectares to about 9 million hectares. During this time, production of millets declined from about 8.8 million tons to about 7.2 million tons; a decline of 18%. Tremendous decrease in area and production is directly or indirectly resulted in the loss of agro biodiversity of these crops as these crops are grown on marginal or rainfed areas without any fertilizers. Therefore, more emphasis should be given for maintaining bio diversity of these highly rich crops by increasing area under these minor millets and developing proper agro techniques for increasing its productivity.

Abstract

Rice is the staple and principle food of about half the human race and is often the main source of calories. Navara is a unique rice cultivar indigenous to Kerala, gifted with extra short growth duration. It is mainly used for the preparation of Navara kizhi, which is an effective remedy for rheumatic complaints, neuro muscular disorders and body rejuvenation. It is traditionally given as a supplementary diet to the under-weight and also consumed as a replenishing drink called ‘Karkadaka kanji’ during the monsoon season along with certain other herbal medicines.Despite the Navara is known for its special medicinal attributes to the producers, consumers and other actors of the value chain, there is a declining trend of Navara rice cultivation noticed (2000 acres to less than 50 acres) in the state (The Hindu, November 28, 2010), which entails the loss of biological and cultural diversity associated with this unique rice.The study attempted to identify and analyze the actors involved in the value chain of Navaraon the conservation perspective. The primary data required to analyze actors in the value chain were collected from the farmers, input suppliers, processors, retailers and consumers of Palakkad, through key informant method, focused group discussion, and structured interview schedules and analysed through Value chain mapping tool and SWOT analysis. The secondary data regarding the rice and its properties were collected from websites and publications. The study revealed that the cultivation of Navarashould be purely organic to preserve its medicinal value. The cultural practices except ploughing, such as weeding, manuring, harvesting etc. are done manually. Application of chemical fertilizers will increase the vegetative growth of Navaraand subject to lodging of plants and at the same it also affects the quality of rice.

Abstract

The present investigation on “Agro bio-diversity and genetics of fibre characters, yield and its components in intra and inter specific hybrids of allo-tetraploid cottons (Gossypiumspp. Linn.)” was carried out at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, to study the combining ability and heterosis for quality and yield characters. Further, an attempt was made to trace out best parents and crosses for future breeding programmes and also to know the gene action controlling the traits through generation mean analysis for designing appropriate breeding strategy. In this direction, seven lines and four testers were crossed in L x T design to generate 28 hybrids and evaluated with check NHH 44 to know the combining ability of parents and crosses. Since L x T design does not provide comprehensive picture on gene action governing the traits, the generation mean analysis through joint scaling test was done in four crosses for eleven characters. High PCV and GCV were recorded for number of monopodia per plant and seed cotton yield per plant and moderate estimates were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight. High heritability estimates coupled with high genetic advance were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant. Estimates of components of variance and their ratios (?2 gca/?2 sca) indicated the preponderance of non-additive gene action for days to 50 % flowering, number of monopodia per plant, number of sympodia per plant, number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant, whereas additive gene action was observed for the fiber quality traits viz., 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire value and bundle strength.

Abstract

The genetic divergence among 249 germplasm lines of maize was assessed by D2statistics based on nine parameters at Agricultural Research Station, Karimnagar. The germplasm lines were grouped into eleven clusters. Clusters I and II were the largest clusters with 73 and 79 genotypes, respectively. The highest inter cluster distance was observed between cluster X and XI followed by cluster V and XI indicating more variability in the genetic makeup of inbreds included in these clusters. Cluster V showed highest mean values for grain yield/plant and ear length. Cluster XI had the lowest mean values for plant height and ear height and these two characters showed maximum contribution towards total divergence among different characters. Based on inter cluster distances, inter crossing among the genotypes belonging to cluster V, IX, X and XI has the chance of getting high yielding hybrids with higher heterosis.

Abstract

Crop diversity play important role of sustainable development. A study on crop diversity in Andhra Pradesh was conducted during 2010-2011. In Andhra Pradesh, cultivated crop plant species resulted in augmentation of 140 species belonging to 132 genera and 46 families. The maximum species strength was observed in the Rayalaseema region (127 species belonging to 120 genera and 43 families), followed by Telangana region (125 species belonging to 114 genera and 43 families) and parts of Coastal Andhra region (118 species belonging to 103 genera and 46 families). Species richness was predominant in cultivated crops like vegetable crops (31 species belonging 25 genera and 12 families), Fruit crops (25 species belonging 18 genera and 14 families), commercial crops (23 species belonging 23 genera and 15 families) and Leafy vegetables (12 species belonging 12 genera and 8 families). The maximum species richness in families was found in Fabaceae (16 genera and 19 species), followed by Poaceae (14 genera and 16 species), Cucurbitaceae (11 genera and 14 species), Asteraceae (7 genera and 7 species) and Apiaceae (5 genera and 5 species). The present and the past similar studies observed that many more native species remain in agriculture than previously thought, under the right conditions. There is a need to establish mechanisms of control on introduction of exotic species in natural habitats. We also need to strengthen the legislation on the use of biodiversity and to establish a research programme of the economic potential of local flora and fauna as an alternative to introduction of exotic species to safeguard our traditional crop diversity.

Abstract

India is a country of villages (640930 villages) and 68.84% population of India is living in villages as per the All India Census, 2011. Dairy farming has been complementing the Indian agriculture since ancient times and rearing of livestock for milk/milk products and draft power has been the tradition of ancient India. Majority of the stake holders are from local communities, particularly pastoralists, have been using their traditional knowledge system for rearing the native breeds. The systematic breeding of cows over the centuries has led to the development of as many as 37 cattle breeds in India. Breeds like Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Kankrej, Tharparkar and Rathi are mostly reared for milk production. The number of the animals of majority of indigenous breeds has declined over the years attributed to crossbreeding. Further, their number is very low and majority of cattle population (80%) in India is non-descript. However, considering the importance of indigenous cattle, some of the breed improvement programs have been initiated to conserve and multiply these breeds.

Abstract

Local breeds of livestock represent embodiment of evolutionary wisdom fully in tune with ecosystem and able to produce and reproduce in spite of the prevalent hardships and shortages. Indigenous breeds survive and produce where others fail. Each of the recognized 144 indigenous breeds of livestock (covering cattle, sheep, yak etc.) has its unique qualities - some known and some yet unknown - but central to all features is ‘efficiency of production’ by local breeds. A breed in its own habitat makes the most efficient production system; under the same prevalent input system, any other breed from outside would not perform as efficiently. Another valuable common feature of the local breeds is their sustainability of survival and production. Production level may be medium as the animal has to spend energy in order to gain adaptability to high ambient heat, tolerance to drought, resistance to the prevalent diseases and be able to retain capability to digest low quality feed fodder which itself is not sufficiently available. In spite of such hardships, the local breed continues to survive and successfully procreates to sustainably maintain the production system over generations and thereby providing livelihoods to marginal people leading to inclusive growth. Innate features of sustainability of the local breeds provide sustainability to local livelihoods as well. It is noted that the livestock in its entirety, but especially the indigenous breeds proper, have the multifarious capability to provide livelihoods to our rural masses, infuse sustainability to animal-agriculture, and facilitate inclusive development by targeting and supporting the marginal people in the country.

Abstract

In the present study, the village chicken rearing practices were documented in Kannur and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. A total of 128 native chicken farming households were surveyed. The system of management is extensive backyard type with the provision of shelter at night. Around 90% of the farmers had more than five years of continuous experience in village chicken farming. Majority (73.4%) of chicken present in this region was either reproduced within the household from earlier generations or added from the neighbourhoods of the same Panchayat. Most of the farmers (68.8%) consider that chickens are reared for both egg and meat; while, others (31.3%) deem that they are meant for eggs alone. As many as 87 % of the farmers cull the surplus males before one and half years of age. In contrast, majority of farmers (78.1%) do not cull female birds and usually maintain them till their death.

Abstract

The Arabian camels are well known for their existence and adaptation to the desert geo-climatic situations. Their service to mankind in the difficult terrains of the earth for transport and baggage is also well documented in the literature and has clear reflection in society through art and culture. The existence and adaptation of single humped camels in hilly terrains of India is not very much known, but there exists a population of camel in the hills of erstwhile Mewar state of southern Rajasthan and adjoining area. Based on the locality these camels are known as Mewari camels and are well adapted to travel and carry loads across hills. Phenotypically the Mewari camels are stouter and off-white to light brown in colour. Molecular characterization also distinguishes it from other major breeds of camel. The Mewari camels are mainly reared for milk production. In recent study, it was found that of the total camel population with camel milk producers, about 31% are in-milk female camels. On an average about 2.8 litres of milk per milking female is being sold in the market everyday. Assuming that the camel population in the tract has gone down by 25% of its level of the year 2007 and the current survey figures are utilized for extrapolation, the population of camels in the breeding tract comes to 10408 with 4335 breedable females and 3226 female camels in milk. Accordingly, thousand lactating camels are producing 2800 litres of milk per day or 1022 tonnes per annum and are exclusively meeting the milk requirement of 10,000 persons at present level of per capita availability of milk in the country i.e. 276 gm per day. If the production potential of superior animals of the breed is utilized, the per day production from a female camel can be gradually increased to 6 litres or even more as the the best animals produce an average yield of 10 litres of milk per day during a lactation period of 16 months. Thus with 1000 she camels presently meeting the milk requirement of 10,000 people, may meet the milk requirement of 20,000 people by selecive breeeding. With proper policy support, if more she camels can be covered, the population covered can be increased proportionately. The increase in milk production is expected to increase per capita milk availability in the deficient districts and thus may assist us in ensuring nutritional security of the people of the region. Consequently, the increased milk production may further ensure better returns to the camel owners and thus strengthening the livelihood and conserving the camel populations in situ.

Abstract

Camelids across the world are reared for milk, meat, draught, race and tourism. Camelids are also the source of world’s finest natural fibre. They are distributed in the South American, African, Arabian and Asian countries. Apart from this a feral population exists in Australia and recent reports indicate that a few animals of the species are also being reared in Europe. Camel (Camelus dromedarius) is the predominant species of the camelids. The world camel population shows an increasing trend with 12.92 m in 1961 to 26.63 m in 2011 producing 0.42 m tonnes of meat and 2.11 m tonnes of milk per annum. The top 20 camel rearing countries produce both milk and meat with the exception of India and Pakistan as per FAO data. There are about 83 populations of the dromedary camels in the world spread mainly across African and Asian countries. There are about 3.04 m Alpacas in world with Huacaya and Suri as the two main populations and 3.24 m Llamas with Chaku and Kara as the two main populations. The Guanaco population in the world is about 0.5 m and that of Vicuna is 0.35 m. The wild Bactrian camels are around a thousand but the domesticated Bactrian camels are about 0.6 m. The Alpaca and Bactrian camel genome has been sequenced whereas the expressed sequence tags of the Dromedary are available in the public domain. A brief account of evolution, present status and conservation of camelids is discussed.

Abstract

Determining the optimum stocking rate for a grazing land is a key decision affecting the profitability and viability of a grazing system. Forage intake and subsequent performance is dependent on forage availability to the livestock on a daily basis.
Fixing stocking rate too low results in wastage of forage and loss in profit and too high results in lowered forage intake and livestock output thus results in diminished profits. Overgrazing occurs when the grazing pres-sure exceeds the carrying capacity of the land and would modify the physical properties of soil and ecosystem. Due to the overuse of the grazing land, vegetation cover declines and thus reduces the soil organic matter content and soil infiltration capacity. On farm field experiments were conducted in three farmer’s fields at dryland tracts of Tirupur district for a period of two years from September, 2009 to March, 2011 with the objective to assess the carrying capacity of silvipastoral farming system. Treatments were five silvipastoral systems viz.,Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + fodder sorghum + Pillipesara and Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara. One unit of Mecheri sheep of five ewes (female) and one ram (male) and two buffaloes were maintained in each location. Observations on carrying capacity, annual forage yield, utilization rate, average daily intake and average fodder requirement of sheep and Length of grazing season were made. The experimental results revealed that, among the different silvipastoral systems, rotational grazing of 39 numbers of sheep per ha of silvipasture land with Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara system is found to be the best. This would imply relatively less pressure on land that would indicate sustaining the carrying capacity of grazing land without exerting pressure on natural resources.

Abstract

Indigenous chickens play vital role in sustainable rural development by providing livelihood and nutritional security to the rural and tribal people. However, indigenous chickens in the country increasingly face the threat of their replacement or erosion in their genetic diversity due to introduction of exotic or improved chickens to enhance productivity of backyard poultry production. Therefore, it becomes imperative to improve the growth and productivity of indigenous chickens in order to make the rearing of indigenous chickens economically attractive proposition. Aseel is one of the important indigenous breeds of chicken that is being conserved and improved for growth and egg production at Directorate of Poultry Research (DPR), Hyderabad. The averageegg production of improved Aseel chickens recorded in a laying cycle of 72 weeks of age was 150.3±5.63with an average egg weight of 48.66 ±0.34g. The average body weights of male and female birds recorded at 72 weeks of age were 3156 ± 27.4 and 2133±36.1 g, respectively while corresponding shank lengths were 135.23±0.7 and 104.9±0.4 mm. Another indigenous chicken germplasm, Ghagus-ecotype was collected from border area of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh at Kolar district and is being characterized and conserved at DPR. The comparative growth performance of these indigenous chickens was also studied under similar management conditions. It was observed that the growth and egg production of improved Aseel breed was significantly higher than the Ghagus-ecotype chickens. The improved Aseel breed with its better growth and production performance appears to be a promising indigenous chicken for sustainable rural poultry production.

Abstract

Pollinators provide key services to both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Agricultural productivity depends, in part, on pollinator populations from adjacent semi natural habitats. Honey bees are the primary pollinators of mustard crop because it is highly attractive to bees and provides both nectar and pollen. Studies were conducted to assess the diversity and relative abundance of pollinators in mustard (Brassica juncea) of 2011-2012 at Apiary Garden, G.B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.A total of 19 insect visitors belonging to order Hymenoptera (15) and Diptera (4) were found to visit the mustard blossoms. Hymenopteran visitors belonged to six families namely Apidae (6), Scollidae (3), Xylocopidae (1), Halictidae (2), Magachilidae (1), Anthophoridae (1) and Sphecidae (1). Lepidopteran visitors belonged to families Pieridae (1). Besides this some Dipteran visitor belonged to families these were Syrphidae (3) and Muscidae (1) were observed on mustard flowers. From the family Apidae, honeybees (Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis cerana indica and Apis florea), Ceratina sexmaculata, Xylocopa iridipennis and stingless bee Tetragonula laeviceps family Apidae. Scolia (Discolia) binolata, Campsomeriella collaris and C. annulata of family Scollidae, the Alkali Bees (Nomiasp.) and Halictussp. of Halictidae, Leaf cutter bee (Megachile disjuncta) of Megachilidae, the digger bee (Anthophorasp.) of Anthophoridae and Sphex sp. of Sphecidae. Three species from family Syrphidae (Syrphus corollae, Episyrphus valtiatus and Eristalis tenax) and one species from Muscidae (Musca domestica) visited the mustard flowers. The abundance (percentage of insect/m2/2min.) of Hymenopterans were maximum (79.97 %) followed by the Dipterans (16.15 %) and others (3.73 %). In Hymenopterans, the honeybees (Apis bees) were observed maximum (57.55 %) followed by non Apis bees (21.06 %) and the scolid wasp (1.35 %).

Abstract

Irrigation tanks (Traditional water harvesting structures) are our heritage handed over to us by our ancestors and are the lifelines of villages. Tanks are small irrigation structures predominantly serve small and marginal farming communities to sustain the agriculture production by supplementing the monsoon rains. There will be festivities in the villages if its irrigation tanks get filled. A proper maintenance of the tanks will prevent famine, starvation and unemployment and bring in prosperity. In most of the Southern states in India, the major threats to tanks are mainly from the encroachers, inefficiency in the functioning of tank system and improper use by the government itself. Tank irrigation in Andhra Pradesh has played a vital role in the development of its agricultural economy. There are around 79,000 small and minor irrigation tanks providing water for irrigation and domestic use, supporting grazing land, fuel wood growth and ground water recharge. Many of these tanks are hydrologically linked in chains (called tank cascades) that cut across administrative boundaries. With deteriorating tank systems, marginal and small farmers are increasingly at the mercy of monsoon and are forced into a cycle of deprivation and debt. These ancient irrigation systems still function as a crucial element in supplying water for agriculture, and they constitute one of the richest sources of wetland biodiversity in the country. A tank system in a cascade has a small reservoir catchment, the reservoir, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as wind-breaking barrier, paddy fields, and the village. The village tanks play significant role in food production sector and provide employment in the rural sector. In addition to providing irrigation water, the tanks made the micro-climate pleasant and cool, provided a rich biodiversity and agro-biodiversity

Abstract

Agrobiodiversity is the back bone playing a significant role in food security and sustainable livelihoods. Agricultural systems of India are home to a great diversity of plant species and genetic varieties, but unfortunately these traditional farming systems are facing the danger of extinction today. The present study was conducted from three tribal mandals namely Araku, Paderu and Ananthagiri in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh as it is noted as a hub of biodiversity in North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. Data was collected by direct interview method and the traditional storage practices for the conservation of agrobiodiversity (landraces) were described.

Abstract

The human race has been dependent on plants for both material and financial needs for millions of years. This has enabled them to evolve a unique system of knowledge on the utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources. Tribals rich traditional knowledge is associated with biodiversity. This knowledge has been acquired over years, treasured and are endowed with and passed on by the local communities and the tribals. Farmers with their age old experience in farming developed a comprehensive knowledge on nutrient content and medicinal properties of various plants. Cereals, small millets, pulses, oilseeds & many more forest plants form important component of food source for the tribal people of North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. This knowledge was documented from older generation who could provide age old information about the landraces and traditional life styles which are under threat. This paper briefly describes the extent of knowledge possessed by tribal respondents on Agrobiodiversity in terms of crops and landraces cultivated in selected mandals of Visakhapatnam district. Results indicated low knowledge on landrace of Jowar whereas medium knowledge in case of oilseeds and millets and high knowledge in cereals, pulses and vegetables. This calls for a immediate attention from various stake holders for Agrobiodiversity conservation.

Abstract

High Altitude zone is comprised of 40 mandals distributed in parts of Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam districts of Andhra Pradesh covering a geographical area of 1.8 m. ha. The area of this zone lies between 50 to 1680 MSL and is characterized by high slopes, mountains, hills and hillocks as part of Eastern Ghats. Red soils are the most predominant type (94.8%). A small area is covered under alluvial soils and coastal sands. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1245 to 1288 mm of which about 70 per cent is contributed by southwest monsoon. Large geographical area (58.9%) in the zone is under forests and the net cropped area is only 19.2% with very little irrigation sources. The tribal people of this area practice shifting cultivation locally known as “podu” cultivation for their subsistence. Rice is the most important crop in the zone occupying 36.2 per cent of the gross cropped area of 0.42 m. ha. The other principal crops grown are millets, mesta, niger and tuber crops. Tea, coffee and other plantation crops are also grown in addition to aromatic and medicinal plants. Cropping intensity is 120 per cent. Forest produce such as honey, gum, soap nuts, tamarind fetch income to the tribal people (www.angrau.net).

Abstract

India is bestowed with immense richness of agro-biodiversity and a rich diversity in landraces / traditional cultivars/farmers varieties in several Agricultural and Horticultural crops. A huge number of crop plants (384) are reported to be cultivated in India. This includes 168 species earlier reported under the Hindustani centre, one of the eight Vavilovian centers of origin and diversity. Further, an enormous richness (326 species) is reported in wild relatives of crop plants. A total of 49 indigenous major and minor crops have been reported in the “History of Agriculture in India”, published by the ICAR. A large number of cereals, millets, oilseeds and vegetable varieties have originated and are cultivated in India, making it one of the richest Centres of Origin of crop and plant diversity in the world.

Abstract

The advent of modern chemical industry has resulted in the release of huge amounts of novel organic compounds, as industrial by-products, pesticides, other agrochemicals etc into the environment. These new compounds tend to resist biodegradation, with potential consequences such as persistence in the environment or bioaccumulation in food chains. Early detection of toxic chemical compounds in the environment, particularly in water, and their biological effects on organisms has therefore become increasingly important. The traditional approach to environmental pollution assessment is based on chemical analytical methods which only provide information about the absolute concentrations of known chemicals in the environmental sample without an adequate interpretation of its toxicity to biota. In order to get more relevant information about environmental pollution risk, it is therefore inevitable to supplement the chemical analytical data with the results of methods providing information on biological impacts. The negative biological effects of pollutants present in all kinds of environmental samples can be assessed using different living organisms or cells as ‘analytical devices’. The biological response following the exposure of living organisms or cells to environmental sample usually gives an information on toxicity, genotoxicity, estrogenicity etc. of the whole mixture of chemical compounds. According to the technical principle, methods of biological monitoring can be classified to bioassays, biosensors, immunoassays, and ecological methods. Besides being sensitive only to the bioavailable fraction of pollutants, biotests also have the power to assess the integrated effect of interacting chemical compounds and to detect the compounds, which are toxic only due to bioactivation.

Abstract

This paper is intended to focus on importance of Agro-diversity, seed conservation practices, impact of monoculture on biodiversity and connected formal and informal institutions and governance mechanisms. Furthermore this paper explores to discuss the innovation processes, technologies which help in conserving existing diversity, process of evolving newer lines that eventually meet the needs of the farems. Open Source Seed Network (OSSN) would be an organisational platform which consists people engaged in conservation, farmers that can develop Value for Cultivation and Use data for the existing crop varieties in different agro- climatic growing conditions using participatory varietal selection. Farmer breeders engaged in selection and development of newer varieties and Farmers institutions involved in production and marketing of seed to other farmers. Further to elaborate the process the stakeholders will perform the responsibility of conservation and revival of the existing varieties, PVS for generating VCU data, PPB, perform Maintenance Breeding, maintain community seed banks, seed production and marketing. In addition we attempts to focus on mechanisms while making public sector as partners in participatory plant breeding which enable development of locally suitable varieties. An access and benefit sharing mechanism based on an open source model rather than on exclusive rights based is planned for free exchange of germplam within the purview of General Public License for plant Germplasm (GPLGP). This paper emphasise advantages of GPL that prevents exclusive rights, bio piracy, safeguarding farmer derived genetic resources, develop legal/institutional framework that eventually allows farmers to freely exchange, save, improve and sell seeds. In the end this could trigger the emergence of an institutional framework in which farmers and plant scientists work together in plant improvement that contribute to a sustainable food system.

Abstract

The best way to conserve the biological diversity is by involving the local community. It is popularly known as community-based biodiversity conservation (CBC). The conflict between the nature and local communities who have stakes and rights in their territory is a matter of great concern. Likewise, when there prevails the community diversity, what would be the role, participation, share, stake, management issues, equity parameters etc. are the factors that affect CBC. However, CBC is future of conservation of natural resources. It needs adequate focus of community-scale projects on biodiversity conservation implemented by different parties and NGOs. Similarly, empowering community people through adequate financial support and appropriate monitoring and evaluation are the key success factors of community conservation projects. Ethnicity, gender and wealth were the factors that predicted CBC. Hence, the CBC programmes must address these aspects with adequate emphasize. The conflict between human activity and biodiversity conservation, if handled very effectively, will be a productive strategy to highlight pragmatic problems that arise at the field level and creating equitable and sustainable solutions. The general threats as a result of conflict between human activity and biodiversity conservation are agricultural intensification, recreation and human activities and policy related threats. Hence, awareness creation must have an integrative and interdisciplinary approach including the bodies that administer social and natural movements as well as the interests and priorities of local communities. Governing biodiversity conservation measures through political processes by engaging the appropriate representatives has valid implications for the whole process of biodiversity conservation. Alienation of local community, lack of favorable legal framework and lack of addressing the conservation issues through political process may adversely affect the biodiversity conservation as a whole.

Introduction

Wheat is an important cereal crop and is widely cultivated across the world. Wheat is consumed in different forms and major products are chapati, bread, biscuit, noodles and pasta products. Wheat has three groups of cultivated species namely bread, durum and dicoccum wheats. The common or bread wheats account for approximately 95% of world production. Nearly all of the remaining 5% cultivated varieties are durum wheats used for pasta products and couscous and dicoccums represent very little of the total wheat production. The bread wheat is divided into two broad classes based on grain texture; hard and soft. Hard wheats with high protein content and strong gluten are used for making bread and some noodles while soft wheats with lower protein content and weak gluten for biscuit, cakes and pretzels. Semi-hard wheats having some combinations of the above characteristics are utilized for making unleavened breads such as chapati, Asian steamed bread and some noodles. There can be large disparity within wheats of various classes; therefore to provide consistent quality, it is divided into grades. The grading is determined by the test weight, protein content, moisture and foreign material. The major wheat exporting countries have distinct grading patterns designed to provide wheat for specific purposes and consistent quality.

Introduction

There are large numbers of wheat based products such as fermented pan bread, flat breads including chapati, biscuits, noodles and pasta products. Each product has its own specific requirements. For example fermented pan bread needs wheat with higher protein content, stronger and extensible gluten. Chapati requires hard wheat with high protein content and medium gluten strength. Waxy wheats have been found associated with improved shelf life of breads. White salted Japanese noodles need partial waxy wheats with soft grain characteristics and medium protein content and gluten strength. Partial waxy wheats with comparatively lower amylose content and higher starch paste viscosity improve texture of white salted noodles. Yellow alkaline noodles need comparatively harder wheat with medium strong gluten and without waxy trait. Pasta made from durum wheats requires stronger gluten, high protein content and higher content of yellow pigments. In this chapter detailed account of both fermented and flat breads will be given.

Introduction

For many years it has been an elusive task to provide a precise definition as to what constitutes quality in wheat. Each country has its own traditions in bread and other bakery products. Quality will mean different things to a miller, a baker, a grain handler or a plant breeder. As the baking industry becomes increasingly specialized, specific qualities are sought. Even among those wheat varieties generally recognized as having desirable quality traits, the influence of environment can be substantial, and this necessitates a high level of skill on the part of grain buyers to survey the current year’s crop and blend the wheat for a specific end-use. This genotype X environment effect on quality also limits the capacity of end-users to source identity-preserved wheat from a narrow geographic area. Those of us engaged in the field of plant breeding are concerned primarily with those traits that can be manipulated genetically, and we study their stability under a range of climatic conditions. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria.

Introduction

Durum or macaroni wheat (T. turgidum var. durum) is an important crop used chiefly for the production of pasta in Western Europe and North America, and two layered bread, single layered bread, burghul, couscous, pasta, frek and feed in other parts of the world (Table 1). In North Africa and the Middle East, durum is also used for producing flat breads. On a global basis only a small amount of durum wheat is used for baking of pan-style and hearth-style bread. Also, durum wheat for baking is often used in blends with common wheat. In India, durum occupies approximately 2.0 mha area and production is estimated to be around 2.5-3.0 million tones annually amounting to 3-4% of the total wheat production. The consumption of pasta is increasing at the rate of around 5% annually and currently it is estimated to be around 10 Lakh tones. The demand for pasta products may increase further due to increasing population and improving standard of living.

Introduction

Dough is a complex mixture of flour constituents, water, salt and other ingredients depending upon the requirements of end-products. It is the principal intermediate stage in the transformation of wheat into different end-use products. Rheological properties of dough determine the behaviour of dough during mixing, rounding and molding used in making different products and also effect on the quality of finished product. Therefore, understanding the various features of dough rheology and their relations with product quality is important. The importance is enhanced further because of mechanization and automation of baking industry. Dough is composed of continuous phase in which gas cells are dispersed. The continuous phase is called “dough phase”. It consists of starch granules embedded in protein matrix along with some lipids, cell remnants and yeast cells in fermented dough. Gas production and retention is the most comprehensive quality requirements of the dough for bread making. The ability of the wheat dough to retain gas during fermentation and oven rise is unique. This depends on the ability of the dough to be stretched into thin membranes because of protein phase.

Introduction

Wheat is the most important cereal crop to the human kind. It is the main source of energy and nutrition in human diet. Wheat is consumed in the form of large number of end products as chapati, bread, biscuit, cakes, pretzels, noodles and pasta products. Millions of people are involved in milling, baking and pasta products industry with huge turnover per annum. However, each end-use product of wheat has it’s own specific requirement for example basically hard wheats along with strong gluten and high protein content are used for bead making. Soft wheat with weak gluten and low protein content are required for biscuit making Souza et al. (1994). Durum (tetraploid) wheat is used for pasta products as macaroni, vermicelli and spheghatti and Dicoccum for therapeautic purposes. Often chemical improvers are used to improve the dough properties for these products. Most of these chemicals have been banned because of their toxic effects. Therefore, only alternative is to develop varieties suited to meet the requirements of these end-use products. This needs better understanding of molecular basis of grain quality to accelerate breeding for producing wheat varieties for each end-use product separately. Storage proteins are the major component of grain which determines end-product quality. In this chapter detailed structure, genetics and functionality of gluten proteins are described.

Introduction

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed crops in the world. Wheat is perhaps best known for its different end-use baking properties as determined by grain texture, protein content and quality. Wheat is generally traded by and classified into “hard” and “soft” market classes on the basis of grain hardness or texture of the wheat kernel (caryopsis). Soft wheats have softer endosperm texture that fractures easily, therefore requiring less energy to mill, yields smaller particles, and has less starch damage after milling when compared to hard wheats. Hard and soft are used with slightly different connotations in different parts of the world. In Western Europe, hard is applied primarily to durum wheats and the soft applied to bread wheat. Elsewhere the term is applied to different cultivars within the species Triticum aestivum. In general, hard wheats are used for bread baking, while soft wheats are used for cookies and cake making. Hard wheat requires more force to crack the kernel, maintains a larger particle size, passes through sieves more easily and has more damaged starch MacRitchie (1980). Higher starch damage is required for good bread making quality Tipples et al. (1994) but is detrimental to the biscuit making quality.

Introduction

Carbohydrates constitute nearly 80% of the total dry matter of wheat kernel. Starch is the predominant form, with cellulose, hemicellulose and pentosans present in lesser amount. Starch is present in discrete granules within the cells of the endosperm. Starch content is available in the range of 65% to 75% and generally related negatively to the protein content. Starch structure is a crucial determinant of many end-product uses of wheat. While the amylose /amylopectin ratio is a useful descriptor of starch structure, a more complete analysis of the population of the molecules which constitute a particular starch is considerably more revealing. The molecules range from the high degree of polymerization (10⁷ – 109 glucose units) and heavily branched amylopectin population, to the lower degree of polymerization (103 -106 glucose units), and infrequently branched amylopectin population. Starches with widely differing structures are suited to particular end uses. For example, starches with no amylose, the so called waxy starches are particularly suited to use as thickeners or gel forming agents because they form a clear stable gel with little retrogradation. In contrast, starch with high amylose content form hydrogen bonded insoluble aggregations which are suited to use in adhesives, plastics and as a source of dietary-fibre starch. The size and branching pattern of starch are also important determinants of the suitability of starches for particular end-uses due to the effects these parameters have on gelatinization temperature, starch swelling and viscosity.

Introduction

Nutritional value of food stuff is defined by its ability to provide nutrients required by the body. Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins are main ingredients in food stuffs. Wheat is an important source of these nutrients. The distribution of nutrients within wheat kernel is typical of many cereals. Nutrients are generally found in the highest concentrations in the germ or embryo and in the aleurone cells surrounding the starchy endosperm followed by bran, whole wheat flour and white flour in decreasing order. Of special importance is that it contains the entire B complex, except for vitamin B12. B vitamins function as cofactors in many metabolic reactions involved in the release of energy. The germ, which includes the scutellum, is especially rich in vitamins B and E, high quality protein, unsaturated fats, minerals, and carbohydrates. The bran consists mostly of the insoluble carbohydrate cellulose, and contains incomplete protein, traces of B vitamins, and minerals including zinc and iron. The endosperm is the largest part of the grain, and consists mostly of the carbohydrate starch, incomplete protein, and trace amounts of vitamins and minerals. Significant variations in the content of grains occur because of variety, crop year, area, fertilizer, and soil type.

Introduction

Improvement of wheat grain quality depends on the knowledge of quality requirements of different end-use products and the genetic components controlling different quality traits. In previous chapters we have dealt in-depth with quality requirements of different end-use products and their genetic components. Depending upon the goal of quality improvement, different strategies are adopted to improve wheat quality. It depends upon the number of genes controlling the traits as well as the availability of the simple methods for phenotyping the traits especially during early segregating generations. In addition stability analysis of the traits across the environments is essential before we go for breeding. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria. Knowledge of germplasm lines having specific quality traits is needed to initiate breeding for the improvement of wheat grain quality for different end-use products. The quality requirements of different major end-use products are provided in the following table (Table 1).

Introduction

Barley is an important cereal crop grown all over the world and is used mainly for feed and malt purposes and little for human food. Barley is the world’s oldest grain, as evidenced by discoveries in ancient cities in the Middle East and North Africa. It has been cultivated for about 8,000 years, and today is the world’s fourth largest cereal crop. Considerable evidence is available that points to the role of barley as sustaining food source in the evolution of humans. Additionally, alcoholic beverages of various types and fermented foods prepared from barley are commonly referred to in the ancient literature. As other food crops (wheat, rice, corn and rye) became more abundant, barley was relegated to the status of “poor man’s bread”. In the United states, barley used as food is 1.5%, as animal feed 65% and in malt and alcohol production 30% (Newman and Newman, 2006). In 1991, barley used as food in European countries was even lower (0.3%) than the United States. In contrast, during the same time period food was the largest for barley in Morocco (61%), China (62%), India (73%), and Ethiopia (79%). However, current consumer interest in nutrition and human health may help restore barley’s status in the human diet. Nutritional qualities of barley have been known since ancient times. For example, Ajgaonkar 1972 described how ancient Indian physicians effectively stabilized type II diabetics some 2400 years ago. Treatment was remarkable simple and not really different from recommendations that are given to diabetic patients today, i.e., lose weight, change diet, and increase exercise.

Introduction

Rice is grown in more than 100 countries in the world and is an important crop for nutritional security of large part of the population. World rice production in 2007 was approximately 645 million tones. Around 50 countries have an annual production of more than 1 million tones. Ninety percent of the total rice is produced in Asian countries, with two countries, China and India, growing more than half the total crop. Top ten rice producing countries are China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Japan, Philippines, and Brazil. In Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, rice provides 50-80% of the total calories consumed. Major part of the rice is consumed locally where produced and only 6-7% of world rice production is traded internationally.

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays, or corn as it is known in some countries) is the principal cereal crop in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The increasing use of maize as a staple food reflected the much higher yields per hectare, compared with wheat, rye and barley. Because maize was cheap, it became the dominant food and main source of dietary energy and protein for poor people, particularly those in rural and underprivileged segments of society. Maize is considered to be a native of the Americans. There are different views about the introduction of maize in India. One view is that maize was introduced into India by the Portuguese during the seventh century. Other view is that maize was introduced in Pre-Colombian era through the Atlantic Arabian trade route. This is supported by the more recent variability that has been observed in the maize collections made from the north eastern Himalayan region. However, the historic records regarding the cultivation of maize in India date back only to the Maratha Empire.

Definition, Significance and Importance

Landscape design and gardening is the technique of design application to beautify our surroundings, our homes, office buildings and everywhere in open space with plants and garden features to give the soothing effect on the body, mind and soul. Rapid urbanization, industrialization with population explosion has been constantly depleting our natural resources through deforestation, ripping of hills and exposing them to erosion, pollution of rivers, streams and lakes with little understanding of the natural environment which supports human life. It is the application of the art and techniques of Landscape Gardening that can spell magic to our surroundings enhancing aesthetic beauty besides, improving and conserving environment. Besides, landscape beautification and ecological balance provision, other beneficial influence of gardens in human life have been researched and studied. Psychologists have found that access to plants and green spaces provides a sense of rest and allows workers to be more productive. Flowers convey our inner feelings sympathy, romance or celebration (pride and joy) or contrition in the most beautiful and delicate manner. Flowers are also used to express religious feelings. Interaction with gardens and natural spaces offers a variety of mental, physical and social beneficial influence for humans, ranging from stress reduction, quicker healing and mitigation of Attention Deficit Disorder in children to decreasing crime and air pollution. Studies throughout the world have proven the power of green spaces to improve human health. Recent studies in the Netherlands and Japan show that people with easy access to green space showed better health and lower mortality rates.

Gardens have been considered important, sacred from ancient time and the styles developed being inspired form its surroundings. Thus the influences of climate, general landform, religion, spiritual vision, culture, nation, prevailing political conditions, social factors, architectural styles, etc have influenced in developing specific garden style in a particular region. These styles developed slowly over hundreds of years and remained insulated and remained intact till the travelling approach between different countries got well established. Later as the mobility between different countries became widespread, these style forms became intermingled and refined even to new forms. This resulted into the development of Japanese garden style or the arts of ‘bonsai’ making which had its origin in China, or the creation of west coast American garden that originated from the Bauhaus and modern movement that stated life in Germany, the mughal garden style in India based on Persian style from Iran etc.

Basically, the different garden styles can be classified into formal, informal, intermediate and wild garden styles. Aristotle, the father of mathematics and Pythagorus, the father of geometry and disciple of Aristotle, strongly influenced the geometry, mathematics and calculative features of formal garden style. While informal garden style have evolved from the eastern vision of thoughts, originated with Laotsu and Confucious contemplation (preaching) that manifested gardens to express peaceful and compassionate atmosphere influencing meditation, silence and internal harmony.

Modern garden designs are classified on the basis of utility, need, location and materials used. Nowadays, garden types are focused on issues contributing towards ecological balance, biodiversity, environmental moderation and sustainability as well as personal preference and taste. This has given new perspectives to roof gardening, rock gardening, home gardening, kitchen gardening, green belt development, traffic islands, avenue plantation etc. Further there is incorporation of alternative energy sources like solar systems, water harvesting, etc. A garden could be for entertainment or a place to relax for some people and for others, a productive kitchen or herbal garden is more important. Some common garden types are given below, where in it is also possible to combine elements of two or three different types to create something entirely different.

Garden should serve the feelings of comfort and pleasure along with soothing effect on mind and soul of the owner and the visitors. This should be the basic aim of the landscape designer along the budget. Landscape artist should never imitate another garden which has secured popularity but should develop one’s own design. Every plot or site may not be even and ideal for designing a garden. The principles of landscape design work together to create the overall look of the garden. Natural undulations of a barren landform should be utilized with its advantages and also to break the monotony of leveled plain. The principles of garden designing interact with the elements of color, texture, line, form and scale to develop a unified landscape design that blends the beauty of nature with the splendor of modern architecture.

Landform, water and plants form the three basic elements of garden designing. Each of these basic element is described and discussed in detail.

I Landform

“Landform” refers to three-dimensional relief of earth’s surface. Thus, in simple words it is the lay of land, synonymous with, “topography”. Land is defined as the surface of the earth and all its natural resources. Landform is thus 3-D view of earth’s surface including all the visible feature of an area of land and landscape refers to the picture representing a view of natural inland scenery. Landform is the common module in exterior environments, a base, an axis, a thread, which ties all the physical elements, space together along the horizon or the water edge. Landforms can be classified as macro-landforms, micro-landforms and mini-landforms. Macro-landforms refers to valleys, mountains, rolling hills, prairies, desert, seashore and plains. Micro-landforms refers to mounds, slopes, level areas or elevation changes using steps and ramps. Mini-landforms refers to subtle, undulations or ripples of a sand dunes or the textural variation of stones and rocks.

Different techniques are used for explaining and representing the type of landform. These include (i) Contour lines, (ii) Models, (iii) Ratio method, (iv) Value and colour, (v) Spot elevation, (vi) Computer graphics, (vi) Hatches (disconnected lines are used) and (viii) Percentage method. These techniques are used for proper study of the landform, to identify loopholes and need to modification in order to establish proper drainage or to modify the site in order to accommodate of various elements or to create an aesthetically pleasing ground plan.

Definition and Significance

Garden Components are the garden features that form the expressions of garden, adding charm to the basic garden landscape and constitute its style, contributing strongly to its texture and structure. Thus, garden features are important as they provide face lift to the garden skeleton, giving it a filling effect with charismatic appeal. Garden features include garden wall, fencing, arches, pergolas, hedge-edge, topiary, etc. Creating sudden and unexpected change of scenery sometimes reveal good contrasts. Thoughtful planning of garden features make an invaluable contribution to garden design. It is possible to design a garden with a large number of man-made artistic items. However, indiscriminate and haphazard use of these items results in clutter. Further, new and strange features in the garden always attract visitors and give unbounded pleasure. During ancient time, because of the traditional style of architecture and high craftsmanship, garden features and adornments have played a big role in many famous gardens of the world. Selection of features and positioning of ornaments in a garden are the visible evidence of the owner’s taste of nature and aesthetic sense. Whatever features are chosen, they must add charm, create an atmosphere of naturalistic design and improve the quality of landscape design. Garden features and ornaments are many, but they must be utilized in the design with restraints. Some important garden features are described below.

INTRODUCTION
Over the past two decades climate change has evolved from a debate about whether the planet is really warming to an increased focus on how to mitigate and adapt to its impacts. After an extensive review of the available literature on evidence of climate change, the Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2007 concluded that “the warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average temperature”. “The scientific evidence is now overwhelming; climate change presents very serious global risks, and it demands an urgent global response” (Stern 2007).

INTRODUCTION

The North-Eastern Himalayas comprise of eastern-Nepal, entire Bhutan, parts of North Bengal and the eight states of North-East India viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, Sikkim and Tripura. The region is characterised by diverse agro-climatic and geographical situations. This has a predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with hot, humid summers, severe monsoons and mild winters. The total forest covering this part of India is 17.50 m ha (which includes 8 NE states and hills of West Bengal) which is about 65.94 per cent of the total geographical area (FSI 2013), and the rest either under crops or non-agricultural uses or un-cultivated land. The low area under agricultural crops is due to natural corollary of the physiographic features of the region, as major chunk of the land has more than 15 per cent slope, undulating topography, highly eroded and degraded soils, and inaccessible terrain. Continuous depletion of the forest cover in the region due to shifting cultivation, firewood, and timber collection is posing the most crucial problem resulting in poor soil health and the resultant environmental degradation. In order to overcome these problems the farmers of the Eastern Himalaya have evolved various types of crop rotations in consonance with the varied environmental conditions and agronomic requirements with tradition by practising different approaches since ages. These practices so developed through major and minor adjustments in land use strategies are mostly sustainable from ecological point of view (Dash and Mishra 2001). 
The practises of agroforestry in this region exhibit a great deal of variation in crop diversity which is influenced by the crop composition and crop rotation. Along an altitudinal gradient, diversity in agroforestry practices is influenced by variation in ecological factors and difference in agricultural practices. Agroforestry has the potential to improve livelihood as it offers multiple alternatives and opportunities to farmers to improve farm production and income and also provides productive and protective (biological diversity, healthy ecosystems, protection of soil and water resources, terrestrial carbon storage) forest functions to the ecosystems. It is accepted as the sustainable management system that encompasses the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms which can be combined together to derive key functions of the agro-ecosystem, its structure and processes for, and in support of food production and food security. It is promoted widely as a sustainability-enhancing practice that combines the best attributes of forestry and agriculture. This practice is now recognized widely as an applied science and is instrumental in assuring food security, reducing poverty and enhancing ecosystem resilience at the scale of thousands of smallholder farmers in the tropics (Sharma et al. 2007). Therefore, strengthening linkages between knowledge systems using “Community” participatory management approaches is now seen as critical for sustainable forestry and agroforestry systems (Adhikari et al. 2007; Dhakal et al. 2007; Ramakrishnan 2007). 
The mountain communities of eastern Himalayan regions have also adopted diverse agroforestry systems as their land use. Environmental, biological, socio-cultural and economic variation existing in the eastern Himalayas have led to the evolution of diverse and unique traditional agro-ecosystems, crop species and livestock, which facilitate the traditional mountain farming societies to sustain themselves. Appropriate agroforestry systems have the potential to check soil erosion, maintain soil organic matter and physical characteristics, augment nitrogen build-up through nitrogen fixing trees and promote efficient nutrient cycling (Patiram et al. 2003).These systems have today become an established approach of integrated land management system not only for renewable resource production but also for ecological consideration (Saha et al. 2012).

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry has long tradition since dawn of the civilization. Farmers and/or land owners integrate different woody perennials in their cropping system along with the animal unit depending upon the physiographic and climatic conditions. It is well proven fact that such adopted systems/practices are location specific and information on such systems is very limited. Therefore, the benefits accrued from such systems are underexploited in comparison to its potential. With depletion of agricultural lands due to shift in rainfall pattern, landslide, run off, regular leaching of nutrients, drying up of natural springs and lack of irrigation facilities have resulted into uneconomical agriculture in the mountain regions of India in general and particular in Jammu & Kashmir. Most of the villages in mountains witness migration on a large scale and lands turning up barren and un-productive. The agroforestry system can provide a viable solution for such problems.

INTRODUCTION

Rajasthan is the largest state of the country with a geographical area of 342,239 Km₂ which constituents 10.41% area of the country. The state can be divided into four major regions; the Western desert with barren hills, level rocky and sandy plains; the Aravalli hills running south west to north-east; eastern plains with rich alluvial soils; and south-eastern plateau. The state has varied climate from semi -arid to arid. The average rainfall in the state ranges from 480 mm to 750 mm, being as low as 150 mm in arid region and 1000 mm in south-eastern plateau (FSI 2009). The recorded forest area is 32,639 Km2 which is 9.54 % of the state’s geographical area. The maximum forests are found in the Districts of Alwar, Banswara, Baran,, Bundi, Chittorgarh, Dhaulpur, Dungarpur, Jhalawar, Kota, Rajasamand, Swaimadhopur, Sirohi and Udaipur. The hot arid and semi-arid regions in the country accounts for 20 % of the country’s geographical area spread over seven states namely Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka and Maharashtra. It comes nearly 31.63 m ha out of which 19.61 m ha alone is in the states of Rajasthan (62.00 % of total arid region). This area is characterized by low erratic rainfall, high temperature and wind velocity, coarse textured soils with low organic carbon and soil fertility status and poor water holding capacity. The underground irrigation water is limited and highly saline in most of the cases (Chandra 2005). Mono-cropping is a gamble in arid tract of Rajasthan due to low and erratic rainfall and frequent occurrence of drought during crop growth period leading to complete crop failure. To avoid complete crop failure the farmers are adopting mixed cropping system from very ancient time. But the system is not perfect during the adverse climatic situation due to low yield, long duration of traditional varieties and unmatched crop combinations. Therefore, in mixed or multi cropping system, the choice of drought hardy, short duration varieties of crops are necessary to ensure the production of crops even under adverse situations. It has been seen that drought occurrence during month of July and August leads to 67-100 percent decrease in production of pearlmillet and short duration pulses which are the main crops of the region grown under rainfed condition.
The people in arid regions of India, since time immemorial has developed location specific agroforestry systems. The scattered trees /shrubs in the agricultural fields are common features of the landscape. Since the beginning of cultivation the farmers deliberately allowed the trees/shrubs to grow with crops. These trees provided them insurance during drought years and provided fodder, fruits, vegetables, timber, fuel, fiber etc. during lean period.

INTRODUCTION

India is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural resources. However, increasing demographic pressure, unscientific use of soil and water, rapid industrialization and urbanization are leading to over exploitation of the resources. Prime agriculture lands are being diverted for non-agriculture use. The per capita availability of cultivated land has declined over the years from 0.53 ha in 1950 to 0.32 ha in 2001 and is expected to further reduce to 0.23 ha by 2025 and to 0.09 ha by 2050 (GOI 2011). Owing to population pressure the consumption of fuel-wood and fodder in the country is much higher than what can be sustainably removed from forests. In India, nearly 86 million tonnes of fuelwood is being removed from the forests and plantations every year in excess of what they are capable of producing on sustained basis (Planning Commission 2001). Our rich and bountiful biological diversity is also showing signs of erosion which is affecting the livelihoods of millions of people who are directly or indirectly dependent on it. Further, water is mostly treated as a free commodity in the country which is leading to its unsustainable exploitation. Erosion due to wind and water is also leading to depletion of natural resources. About 5334 m tones of soil is lost (16 t ha-1) due to wind and water erosion annually which is highest in black soils (24-112 t ha-1) followed by Shiwaliks (80 t ha-1) and shifting cultivation (27-40 t ha-1) (Mandal et al. 2008). It is now widely accepted that future of food, livelihood and environmental security depends upon the attention paid to conservation, sustainable development and management of natural resources. Corrective measures are immediately required to check the damage caused to the resource base and environment. 
Traditionally, trees and crops were grown in association with each other on farm lands. The reason was to get multiple outputs from same piece of land, though such systems were exclusively meant for sustenance with little or no commercial intent. As the population increased there was a need to produce more food and hence slowly the tree component vanished from the farmlands and monocropping became dominant. Over a period of time, due to monocropping, soil degradation had been observed. The need of the hour is to accept the trees as an integral part of the farming system to revert soil degradation and erosion and also to reduce the dependence of external inputs in form of fertilizers, pesticides etc. in the production system.
Of late, incorporating trees on the farm lands has been given impetus to get multiple products (fodder, fuel, timber, fiber and fruits) on one hand and resource conservation (soil, water and environment) on the other. Different agencies (institutes, universities and NGO’s) are working on developing region specific agroforestry models to derive maximum advantage of production and conservation from every unit of land. Agroforestry is capable of yielding both wood and food besides conserving and rehabilitating ecosystems. Agroforestry generates high income and minimises risks through efficient utilization of available resources and is thus considered   a potential technology for commercial and protective farming.
The extent of the area under agroforestry is not very clear. Trees outside forests in India is estimated between 14,224 million (Ravindranath and Hall 1995) and 24,602 million (Prasad et al. 2000) which is spread over an equivalent area of 17 million ha (GOI 1999) supplying 49% of the 201 million tonnes of fuelwood and 48% of the 64 million m3 of timber consumed annually by the country (Rai and Chakrabarti 2001). Dhyani et al. (2006) reported 7.45 million ha under agroforestry.  As per one of the estimates, about 27.52 million ha is under various types of tree plantations, which include agroforestry, social forestry, farm forestry and others (Table 1). The task force on Greening India (Planning Commission 2001) has identified a potential of 10 millions ha in irrigated lands and another 18 million ha in rainfed areas that could be developed through agroforestry on watershed basis. 
The present chapter focuses on the advantage of integrating trees on the farm lands in form of agroforestry for natural resource management.