eChapters

The process through which heat energy is transferred from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature without any material medium between the two bodies is x called radiation. The outer surface of the the Sun is at higher temperature compared to the surface of the earth. Solar radiation is the electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun. It is the primary source of energy for the Earth’s climate system, driving atmospheric and oceanic circulation, influencing weather patterns, and sustaining life through photosynthesis.2 This energy travels through space as electromagnetic waves, encompassing a broad spectrum of wavelengths, from high-energy gamma rays and X-rays to ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and radio waves. The portion of this spectrum that reaches the Earth’s surface is crucial for a multitude of processes, making thestudy of solar radiation fundamental to understanding our planet’s environment.  This introduction will lay the groundwork for exploring the characteristics, distribution, and interaction of solar radiation with the Earth’s atmosphere and surface.
5.1. Wave length of Radiation
The wavelength of radiation refers to the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs of a wave. It’s a measure of the length of one complete cycle of the wave

6.1 Strength of India
    ·    In India, pomegranate is cultivated over 1.31 lakh ha with a production of 13.46 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 10.27 t/ha. 
    ·    India is the largest producer of pomegranates in the world.
    ·    Pomegranate is currently ranked 10th in terms of fruit consumed annually in the world. India is the only country in the world where pomegranate is available throughout the year i.e. From January to December. It is cultivated in 3 seasons (Ambia bahar, Mrig bahar and hasth bahar) in Deccan plateau of India. 
    ·    India is endowed with wide agro climatic conditions that offer immense scope for cultivation of various kinds of fruit crops. This provides an excellent platform for the country to emerge as a leading producer of fruit crop. 

Chow-Chow [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz] is used in many parts of Latin America, humid tropical regions of Central America and Southern Mexico. It is cultivated in South East Asia (India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Phillipines), Central and Western Africa, Central and South America (Brazil) and other tropical regions. (Dutta 1994). In India, local cultivars are commonly grown in coastal and low-hills (1000-2000m) of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. In Tamil, it is called “Seeme Kattrikkai” (Bailey, 1947). It is an important part of dietary system of tribals of  North East Regions. It is found in kitchen gardens of every tribal. It is found in almost all states and regions but maximum variability is found in Sikkim, Mizoram and Meghalaya (Yadav et al., 2005). Its variable fruits and roots, are important elements in diet of people. Chow-Chow is widespread and is an important export crop for  Latin American countries, much still need to be learned  about this crop (Rafael Lira Saade,1996). Chow-Chow is a single seeded fruit of  Cucurbitaceous family (MacGillivray, 1953). It is a perennial rooted vine that bears edible fruits (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). In subtropical and tropical regions, it produces large edible tuberous roots. It thrives under moderate temperature in  tropical or semi-tropical environment, though it can also be successfully grown under high temperature near sea level. Chow-Chow is a herbaceous perennial creeper (Choudhury, 1967) and is a robust grower in warmer months of year and during  cold weather of July and August  plant dies back temporarily. It has a viviparous type of germination (Patnaik, 1967). S.edule is called chayote, probably from  Greek ‘Sekos’ to  fatten in a fold because it was fed to hogs ( Bailey, 1963).

ETHICS OF ANIMAL USE IN RESEARCH

• The use of animals in scientific research is a controversial issue. Animals have been used throughout the history for anatomical and physiological research as well as for testing toxic substances.
• Many medical advances, including vaccines for polio and rabies, the development of certain antibiotics, anti cancer agents and transplant medicine have been developed by using animals in research.
• But the question is whether it is right or wrong to use animals for these purposes.
• All scientists working with laboratory animals must have a deep ethical consideration for the animals they are dealing with.
• From the ethical point of view it is important that such considerations are taken care at the individual level, at institutional level and finally at the national level.

What are Ethics ?

Dolichos bean, [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] var. typicus (2n=22) also known as Indian bean or sem is one of the vital leguminous vegetables grown in India for its tender green pods. Both pole types and bush types are commercially grown. It is predominantly cultivated in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and North-East India. Protein, minerals, vitamins and f ibers are abundant in Dolichos bean. Bush-type vegetable dolichos unlike the pole-type dolichos (which are generally grown during the winter season as they require short day) are thermosensitive and can be grown year-round.

Dolichos is a versatile and valuable leguminous crop, offering multiple benefits. It boasts a high protein content of 3.6% and fiber content of 1.8%. The dry seed is composed of a protein content ranging from 23.0% to 28.0%. The pods are abundant in phenols, with levels ranging from 1.7 to 9.67 mg/100 g, making them a valuable source of antioxidants. Furthermore, dolichos serves as an excellent source of amino acids, particularly lysine, along with vitamins such as A, C, and riboflavin, and essential minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, S, Na and P). The seeds of dolichos contain a flavonoid, kievitone, recognized for its potential in combating breast cancer. Additionally, the presence of tyrosinase in the seeds indicates promising possibilities for treating hypertension in humans. Dolichos beans are utilized for various medicinal purposes, acting as stomachic, anthelmintic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, digestive, febrifuge, and carminative agents. Furthermore, they are rich in bioactive compounds that offer significant benefits in treating specific ailments such as liver problems, diabetes and tumors.

Introduction
Mango (Mangiferaindica L) known as “the king of fruits” and “Apple of the Tropics” is most popular fruit in the tropics and sub-tropics. It moved from India to different countries and has gained popularity around the world. It has long been associated with the Indian culture and religious functions. Among different states, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh constitute 23.64 per cent and 22.99 per cent share in the total mango, respectively, in the country. In 2023, Mango production had a total export volume of 78.56 billion MT. India is the biggest mango producer with a total production volume of 25 million MT of mangoes during the year. The top 10 mango producers in 2023 include India (25 million MT), China (3.8 million MT), Indonesia (3.6 million MT), Pakistan (2.7 million MT), Mexico (2.4 million MT), Brazil (2.1 million tons), Malawi (1.7 million MT), Thailand (1.6 million MT), Bangladesh (1.5 million MT) and Vietnam (1.4 million MT). As regards world-wide mango exports, Mexico is the biggest mango exporter with total exports worth $576.36 million in 2023. It was noted that Mexico’s mango exports increased by 5.09% from the previous year. The top 10 mango exporting countries in 2023 include the following:

Horticulture is an intensive branch of agricultural and plant sciences concerned with the production, management, improvement, utilization, and marketing of high-value crops. It encompasses fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamentals, plantation crops, spices, medicinal plants, and nursery crops. This chapter introduces the meaning, scope, importance, history, and major branches of horticulture. It explains how horticulture differs from general agriculture through its emphasis on quality, intensive management, perishability, and value addition. The chapter also highlights the economic, nutritional, social, and ecological contributions of horticulture and traces its development from traditional cultivation to modern technologies such as protected cultivation, precision farming, hydroponics, and artificial intelligence.

ABSTRACT

Heavy metal contaminated soils are biologically inactive and extremely poor in soil fertility status. These metals are highly resistant and cannot be easily degraded by either chemical reactions or amendments. Microorganisms are biological softwares capable of degrading the metals efficiently. Among microorganisms, mycorrhizas are known to circumvent metal toxicities through a series of processes that assist in immobilization in biological systems which converts toxic metals into less or nontoxic forms. There are five mechanisms such as biosorption, solubilization, hyphal transport, detoxification and dilution are involved in promoting tolerance of host plants to heavy metal toxicities. These processes are strategies that can be exploited to phytoremediate the contaminated soils. The phytoremediation strategies encompass tolerance of mycorrhizal fungi, phytostabilization (preventing entry of heavy metals into plants), phytoextraction (luxuriant uptake and transport to shoots) and intercropping or crop rotation with mycorrhizal dependent hyperaccumulators or non-hyperaccumulators. Despite mycorrhizas are natural, the indigenous population is not sufficient enough to induce tolerance of host plants to abiotic and biotic stress conditions. This necessitates adopting recommended agronomic practices to promote mycorrhizal colonization in natural agro-ecosystem or to derive full benefits from phytoremediation strategies. Thus mycorrhizas are important naturally occurring microorganisms capable of withstanding highly contaminated metal sites and offer protection against phytotoxicities caused by heavy metals.

Introduction

The importance of food security and its management world over has been recognized long back. The World Food Summit in 1974, called in response to the persistent and widespread under-nutrition and the future role of agriculture, stressed upon establishment of committee to review and recommend location specific action plan in sensitive areas. Asserting that every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition in order to develop their physical and mental faculties, an international undertaking on world food security was set up in which member nations committed to maintain food stocks to ensure routine and emergency food supplies (in case of crop failure, natural disaster, etc.). Monitoring the implementation of such undertaking has since then become the responsibility of the Committee on World Food Security.

Introduction Consumer demands for convenience and mildly processed meals with long shelf lives have led to unique and current developments in food packaging solutions (Dobrucka and Cierpiszewski, 2014). Additionally, the development of unique and creative packaging solutions that do not compromise food safety or quality is being fueled by the current retail trend and changing lifestyles (Dainelli et al., 2008). The widespread use of packaged meals has raised consumer demand for prepared foods like microwaveable dinners, and the growing popularity of smaller food packages all help to fuel the food industry's explosive growth in creative packaging (Restuccia et al., 2010). The rise in food-borne microbial outbreaks, which calls for the usage of packaging that possesses antimicrobial qualities while retaining food quality, is another major driver of new food packaging (Appendini and Hotchtkiss, 2002). The initial advancements in packaging were electrically powered packing equipment, flexible packaging, metallic cans, aseptic packaging, aluminium foils, and flexographic printing. A considerable movement away from metal, paperboard, and glass packaging in favour of plastic and flexible packaging was also brought about by the discovery of various materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl alcohol polymers.

Social change encompasses alterations in both the tangible and intangible aspects of a society's culture. It involves transformations in the structure and dynamics of social systems, manifesting as shifts in:

• The roles assumed by individuals

• The values and norms upheld within society

• The framework of social institutions and structures

• The dynamics of interpersonal relationships

• The patterns of social interaction

• The functions fulfilled by various societal groups and institutions

3.1. General Introduction

Value addition refers to the conversion of a raw commodity or commodities into a processed product through the use of raw materials, labour, time and technology, all mixed in a way that ensures increased economic return. Even if the amount of processing in a product is much less, for example, any canned fruit can be considered as a processed product. Value added processing of horticultural food crops, mainly involves actions which changes fresh fruits and vegetables to create a greater value-added product for human consumption, which mostly includes canned products, juices, soups, sauces and dehydrated fruits and vegetables (Sharan, 2018). It results in diversification of agricultural activities, improves value addition opportunities and creates surplus for export of processed agro products. Processing often goes with perishable products like meat, milk, poultry, fruits and vegetables, often termed as High Value Products (HVPs), are in greater demand of processing (Sanal & Krishna, 2017). The demands for processed products are particularly strong in developing countries like China and India; mainly due to increasing industrialization and rapid urbanization, followed by elevated income levels, greater diversity in diets, and affinity towards premium-branded products (Sharan, 2018).

Agriculture 4.0, otherwise called “Digital Agricultural Revolution”, addresses a change in outlook in agriculture, utilizing state of the art innovations to improve different parts of cultivating tasks. These innovations include the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial brainpower (Artificial intelligence), Huge Information, distributed computing, Cloud computing, Decision Support System (DSS), high level detecting innovation, and independent robots. Sensors and mechanical technology assume a urgent part in gathering fundamental field information, which is then sent to a neighborhood or cloud server by means of IoT innovation for capacity, handling, and examination. Large information and Artificial intelligence-based strategies can be utilized to change over this information into significant experiences. To work with client connection and informed independent direction, a DSS outfits clients with the fundamental devices to improve the agricultural framework and embrace proper activities.
AI (ML), a subset of Artificial intelligence, has shown extraordinary potential in upgrading different parts of agriculture 4.0. It very well may be characterized as a PC program or framework that can learn explicit errands without being expressly modified to do so. An interaction includes the utilization of a PC to go with choices in light of various information inputs. For this situation, information means a bunch of models. Marked information is frequently utilized for managed learning undertakings (where the model gains from named models), and unlabeled information may be utilized for solo learning assignments (where the model tracks down examples and designs in the information).
ML for sure advantage from a lot of information to accomplish significant exactness in their errands. With regards to farming, acquiring immense and various information can be at times testing yet crucial for the outcome of ML models. IoT sensors are instrumental in gathering a different scope of farming information as they can be decisively sent across fields to catch pertinent data with respect to, for example, soil conditions, Climate factors, crop wellbeing, and animals’ measurements. The inescapable reception of IoT innovation works with constant and continuous information procurement, empowering

Introduction

Bougainvillea is a popular ornamental plant in the tropics and sub-tropics of the world. The plant is mainly grown for its attractive bracts in wide array of colours which splash colour to the surrounding where it grows. Wide adaptability to different agro-climatic conditions and easy multiplication has made it a popular ornamental plant of the world. The mass effect of the colourful bracts of Bougainvillea can alter the face of any given place in a magnificent way which could not be achieved by punctuating any other plant. The flowering of Bougainvillea is compared with the Azalea of temperate countries and very truly called as Glory of the Tropics.’

The popularity of Bougainvillea has now crossed from tropical to temperate countries and successfully being grown as pot plants in green houses. Selection of cultivars of Bougainvillea spectabilis and B. peruviana for temperate region is recommended for better result. Availability of a large number of cultivars under horticulturally important species, provide a unique scope to the Bougainvillea lovers for wide choice according to their need. Single bracted cultivars with large bracts in different colours are obvious choice for every landscape designer while double bracted cultivars produce mass effect of colour as specimen plant. Considering its ornamental and commercial importance in nursery trade, R & D work were taken up by different national research institutes (IARI, IIHR, NBRI, BARC), agricultural universities, Agri-Horticultural Societies (Kolkata and Chennai) and even by progressive nursery men. As a result, a large number of new cultivars have been developed in India. Considering the contribution made by India, The international registration authority for new cultivars lies with The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi which is an international recognition conferred upon by International Society for Horticultural Science.

Recently, lot of development taking place for further popularization and exploitation of Bougainvillea around the world by way of development of new cultivars, standardization agro-technology suited to different zones. Countries like Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and India have been excelling in this area. Establishment of American Bougainvillea Society is another landmark in Bougainvillea cultivation.

Crop plan and practices for rainfall scarcity prone areas

The appropriate crop plan and practices, which have so far been generated and recommended for achieving the objective of increased and stable crop production in dry land areas have been summarized in the following points:-

1.Proper and timely tillage

2.Early sowing

3.Choice of suitable crop/good plant material

4.Proper plant population

5.Cropping system

6.Fertilizer use

7.Timely weed control

8.Efficient rain water storage and its use

9.Alternate land use system

10.Planning for aberrant weather hazard

Introduction

For human beings, the three most important necessities for their survival are food, clothing and shelter. among all of these food is the top most priority. Food safety and Standards defines food into 8 categories (Nutraceutical, Heath Supplements/Dietary Supplements, Food for special medical Purpose, food for Special Dietary Use, Novel Food, and Functional food) in regulation, 2016. A growing trend of health products, concept of food as medicine, associated public interest and consumers demand leads to a progressive research interest in functional foods and nutraceuticals development. Abnormal lifestyle, food habits (consumption of junk food) and low physical activity creates an exponential growth in a number of chronic diseases; obesity, cardio-vascular syndromes, osteoporosis, arthritis and cancer (Das et al., 2012) among the developing and developed countries. While nutraceuticals and functional foods are becoming an alternative affordable system to reduce the risk of disease through prevention in spite of high tech therapies and costly medicines.

The current survey showed that worldwide revenue of functional foods is projected to increase from about 300 billion U.S. dollars in 2017 to over 440 billion dollars in 2022. Also according to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), health benefits achieved from functional food components may provide benefits far beyond than basic nutrition. Products like dietary supplements containing vitamins, functional foods such as sports drinks or products fortified with probiotic play a major role in the market rise (www.statista.com).Indian and Chinese traditional foods, recipes, spices and diversified ingredient market is well known around the world from centuries. Hence, a double-digit growth rate is also experienced in Asian nutraceutical and functional food market. Another reason for the growing trend in consuming functional foods is education and proper health awareness. Furthermore, people are more concern about the optimization of health-promoting capabilities in their diet using dietary supplement and fortified foods. While, food product based industries are marketing health supplements using scientific facts and the relationship between diet and health. Government, non-government organizations (NGOs) and web-based online information also play a key role in promoting and trending food based health products.

6.1 Quantities and rates of runoff

Before a start can be made on the design of the channels and ditches and other works which can deal with surface runoff we need to know the probable quantity of water. If the object is to impound or store the runoff then it may be sufficient to know the total volume of water to be expected, but the usual conservation problem is conveying water from one place to another, and in that case the rate of runoff is more important, and particularly the maximum rate at which runoff is likely to occur. That is the flow which a channel must be designed to accommodate.

In a hypothetical catchment area* with an impervious surface and no losses the maximum rate of runoff would be directly proportional to the rate of rainfall. In natural catchments there are other factors: some of the rain is intercepted by vegetation, some infiltrates into the soil, some starts moving over the surface but is trapped in depressions, and some is lost by evaporation. Estimates of rates of surface runoff therefore depend on two processes: estimating the rate of rainfall, and estimating how much of the rainfall becomes runoff.

There are several empirical methods for doing both and for combining the two factors, but because they are empirical two points must be stressed. Firstly, as with all empirical solutions, data, tables, and formulae developed in one situation should not be applied in different conditions without careful checks on whether the method is valid in the new situation. Secondly, each of the three main methods which will be

Poultry is one of the most emerging growth components of Indian agriculture, with egg and meat production rising at the rate of 8-10% per year when compared to crop production (1.5 - 2% each year). In India, the poultry population stood at 851.81 million in the 20th livestock census, an increase of 16.8% over the 19th census. Poultry sectors contribute 1% of national GDP and 25% in livestock GDP (FAO, 2021). According to DAHD’s 2022 report, our nation produces 122.05 billion eggs and 4.47 million tonnes of poultry meat altogether. India ranks eighth in terms of total meat production and third in terms of total egg production (DAHD, 2022).

Introduction

Sustainable exploitation of fish stocks and conservation of fish habitat are matters of concern for fishery scientists and administrators all over the world. Worldwide there is a declining trend in natural fish catch (FAO, 2002) and India is no exception. Increasing harvest pressure, destructive fishing operations, introduction of exotics, are examples of factors from within the sector responsible for increasing pressure on fish stocks. The decline in open water catch has been a serious issue in fisheries as millions of rural households depend on fishing to maintain their livelihood incomes, and because fish is a major protein source in the globe. However, the government in several countries is addressing the issue in a number of ways, such as: (i) moving towards biological management from revenue-oriented management; (ii) involving resource users in capture fisheries management to maintain natural productivity; and (iii) starting programs such as rehabilitating of degraded habitats (FAO, 1999).