eChapters

Introduction

India possesses rich fish germplasm resources, accounting for about one-tenth of the 20,000 and odd species of fish known in the world. The Ganga network of rivers in the North, the Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi in the East, the Sutlej, the Narmada & the Tapti in the West and, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery in the South are very rich sources, harbouring bulk of the important fish fauna. (Jhingran, 1982).

The major carps of India which are also referred to as Gangetic carps are the most important among the commercial fish species and form the major component of the aquaculture system in the country (Jhingran, 1982). Since the last two to two and a half decades, there was a steady progress in carp farming in India due to the availability of seed of the major carps and the development of different packages of culture technologies (Chaudhuri et al. 1975).

Introdution

In developing countries, traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. The capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers. The present study focused with this central theme of research.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area (Grenier, 1998). Indigenous Knowledge is the accumulated knowledge, skills and technology of the local people. Indigenous Knowledge has two powerful advantages over scientific knowledge like it has little or no cost, and is readily available. Indigenous Knowledge can be defined as the knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature over the years; the farmer in India had been using cow dung and cow urine as manure in the fields.

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the four most important food crops of the world, the other three being rice, wheat and maize. It is a high yielding and nutritive crop and produces highest dry matter, carbohydrates, edible protein, minerals and vitamin C and B per unit of area and time. In view of the shrinking cultivable land area and increasing population of India, the potato has a high potential to solve the problems of hunger and malnutrition in our country. But, potato is a perishable commodity and its harvest time (February/March) in Indo-Gangetic plains (which account for nearly 87% of the country’s potato production) coincides with steep rise in ambient temperatures. From April onwards, temperatures start shooting up and the produce has either to be consumed within a short period of time or is required to be preserved in the cold stores. Due to inadequate, expensive and unevenly distributed refrigerated storage facilities in the country, there have been frequent gluts in the market causing substantial economic losses to farmers and wastage of precious food. Such gluts occur every 3 to 5 years. The glut years are followed by a reduction in potato area and production leading to high potato prices in alternate years which again encourage farmers to increase potato area in subsequent years resulting again in a glut situation and price crashes. This boom and bust cycle has thus continued for long (Pandey et al., 2009).

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): Soil-inhabiting bacterium that produces an insecticide effective against larval stages of many species of Lepidoptera, although some strains are effective against various beetle, mosquito, and blackfly larvae.

Backcross: A cross between a hybrid and one of its parents; a cross between a heterozygote and a homozygote (cf. Hybridization, Heterozygous, Homozygous).

Bacterial insecticide: Bacteria pathogenic to insects (e.g., Bt or B. popilliae). Applied using application techniques also used for chemical pesticides.

Bacterium (pl. bacteria): Microscopic, prokaryotic, single-celled organisms having cell walls but lacking membrane-bound organelles. Important in decomposition, nitrogen fixation and other symbiosis, and as pathogens. A significant component of soil food webs.

Bait (B): A pesticide formulation that combines an edible or attractive substance with a small amount of toxic active ingredient (usually about 5%). Baits containing poisonous chemical and food stuffs are primarily offered to pests as food for control of animal pests like mollusks, cutworms, and rodents.

F₁ generation: The first-generation offspring of a particular mating.

F₂ generation: Derived from a mating within the F₁ generation.

Face: The front of the head, below the frontal suture (Fig. 108).

Facet: The hexagonal external surface of an individual compound eye unit of ommatidium.

Facies: In taxonomy, the general aspect, appearance, or habits of a species or group.

M

Mach number: Named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916), is the ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the velocity of sound in the same fluid at the same state.

Machine: 1. A combination of rigid or resistant bodies having definite motions and capable of performing useful work. 2. A device for transforming or transferring energy.

Machine drawing: A mechanical drawing of a machine or machine parts provided with notes and dimensions for workshop information.

Machine drilling: The d rillin g of work under a power-driven machine.

Machine molding: The use of special machines in the preparation of molds for the production of castings.

Machine rating: The amount of power a machine can deliver without overheating.

Machineable: Material capable of being finished by tools or cutters in or on a machine tool.

Machinery: A group of machines; also, the working parts of an engine or machine.

Machining: Performing various cutting or grinding operations on a piece of work.

T bolt: A bolt shaped like the letter “T, the head being a transverse piece, which fits into the recessed under cut T slots, as on a table of a milling machine or planning machine.

T head engine: A cross section of an engine block resembles the letter T. Valves are arranged on both sides of the engine; requiring two camshafts and two camshafts drive gears. An expensive type of construction.

Tachometer: An instrument for measuring the speeds of shafts in revolutions per minute.

Tail pulley: A pulley at the tail of the belt conveyor opposite the normal discharge end; may be drive pulley or an idler pulley.

Tail screw: The screw, which operates the spindle of the tailstock on a lathe.

Taillight: A signal light, required by law to be carried on the rear of every automobile, and lighted when the car is driven at night.

Tailstock: The movable head of a lathe as distinguished from the headstock, which is fixed.

Take up: A tensioning device in a belt conveyor system for taking up slack of loose parts.

Gene Frequency

A population, in the genetic sense, is not just a group of individuals, but a breeding group and the genetics of a population is concerned not only with the genetic constitution of the individuals but also with the transmission of the genes from one generation to the next. In the transmission the genotypes of the parents are broken-down and a newest of genotypes is constituted in the progeny, from the genes transmitted in the gametes. The genes carried by the population thus have continuity from generation to generation, but the genotypes in which they appear do not. The genetic constitution of a population, referring to the genes it carries, is described by the array of gene frequencies, that is, by specification of the alleles present at every locus and the numbers of proportions of the different alleles at each locus. If for example, A1 is an allele at the A locus, then the frequency of A1, is the proportion or percentage of all genes at this locus that are the A1 allele. The frequencies of all the allele at any one locus must add up to unity, or 100 percent. 

Heterosis, hybrid vigor, or outbreeding enhancement, is the improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. The adjective derived from heterosis is heterotic.Heterosis is the occurrence of a superior offspring from mixing the genetic contributions of its parents. These effects can be due to Mendelian or non-Mendelian inheritance.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the most important commercial crops of India. The crop is grown on commercial scale in coastal Maharashtra and other states of the country. The main reason for the low productivity is the pest incidence. The insect pests cause crop loss ranging from 30 to 40 per cent in cashew (Satapathy, 1993). Keeping in view, the strategy of increasing production, one of the important aspects is to develop technologies to save the crop from the pest incidences.

Cashew is attacked by around 180 species of insect and non-insect pests in India resulting in substantial yield loss (Sundararaju, 1993b). Godse et al. (2004) reported over 58 species of insects and pests on cashew crop in the Kokan region of Maharashtra region. The infestations of insect pests have been identified as one of the major factor responsible for low productivity. The most important pests that limit production are the cashew stem and borer (CSRB) and the tea mosquito bug (TMB). In addition, leaf and blossom webber, shoot tip caterpillar, and apple and nut borer cause damage. Recently, apple and nut borer and leaf miner are emerging as major pests and they also occasionally becoming serious in some orchards.

Aromatic plants synthesise and preserve a variety of biochemical products, many of which are extractable and useful as chemical feed stocks or as raw materials for various scientific investigations. Many secondary metabolites of plants are commercially important and find use in a number of perfumery, flavouring and pharmaceutical compounds. The characteristic property of the plant is due to a variety of complex chemical compounds and hence aromatic plants are generally referred to as ‘natural bio-chemical factories’ or ‘chemical goldmines’.  Not all these natural chemicals can be synthesised in laboratory. Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances, which occur as essential oil, green exudate, balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts, namely, root, wood, stem, foliage, flower and fruit.  The term essential oil is concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these fragrances are oily in nature and they represent the essence or active constituents of plants. They are called volatile or ethereal oils as they evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperatures.

Abstract

The growth story of any economy depends upon availability of financial services; finance is the life blood of economy and financial system work like the heart of the economy to ensure availability of finance. Efficient mobilization of household saving and effective allocation to the growing credit requirement of the economy helps in sustainable development of the country. Government RBI and banking sectors are making tremendous effort to bring every section of the country into the mainstream financial system. Still there exists a significant gap between the growth expectations and the ground realities in context of ‘mobilization and utilization of funds’ that support inclusive growth of the country. There is also a significant disparity among the people of rural and urban area in availing the services of the financial system. There is a need of effective tools to bridge the gap and bring in every section of people from all parts whether rural or urban to take part in the mainstream financial activities. Mobile technology can act as a tool to develop a platform which helps us to extend the financial services in remote areas. Technology intervention helps banks to reduce their cost, to increase customer reach ability and in better management of business risk. E-wallet can be a good platform to penetrate the financial services.

Abstract

In the present paper an attempt is made to study the job inspirational element of employees of Small and Medium Enterprise’s, Guntur.  It is well known fact that job satisfaction plays major role in satisfying an employee himself as well as the organization in terms of attaining the needed output.  As job inspirational elements are the deciding factors of job satisfaction, HR managers will have an eagle eye towards in this aspect in the organization that intern has to bridge the gap between the personnel and the management.  The present study attempted to understand the well as the source of recruitment through which they have entered the organization.

Abstract

Climate variability/change is one of the very significant concerns discussed in the recent two decades. Its impact on air temperature and precipitation has received massive attention worldwide as they affect both the spatial and temporal patterns of water availability. Hence, it is becoming clearer that analysis of trends in air temperature and rainfall is significant in studying the impacts of climate variability/change for water resources planning and management. Therefore, the aim of the study was to detect theannual, seasonal and monthly trends in air temperature and rainfall in the Râmgangâ river basin. Daily air temperature (Bareilly and Moradabad) and rainfall data (Shahajahanpur, Bareilly, Bareilly BPO and Moradabad)of 40 years (1971 to 2010) were used for the study. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall test and theTheil-Sen’s Slope Estimator was used for determination of estimating the trend and magnitude of the trend. Findings revealed that the basin is experiencing a warming trend because of the rise in themaximum and minimum air temperature. In case of rainfall, Moradabad showna significant high positive trend during the monsoon season. This would alter the river run-off in long run if the existing trend continues to persist like this.

Keywords: Climate change/Variability, Mann-Kendall test, Theil-Sen’s Slope estimator, Water resource planning

Abstract

Nitrogen is an important nutrient for growth and development of plants. Presence or absence of nitrogen often affects the amino acid composition of proteins, which may in turn change its nutritional quality. Increase in the elevated CO₂ concentration and temperature associated with future climates are expected to affect the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), growth and grain yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Atmospheric CO₂ is steadily rising from the current level of approx 384 µLL^-1 and is expected to rises upto 550 µLL^-1 by 2050. It is predicted that the global temperature would increase by 1.5- 4.5^oC. The main future challenge is to feed nine billion people under an altered climate, as this increase in global temperature would affect, negatively or positively the future crop productivity including wheat depending upon the geographical location. The present book chapter summarizes the potential impact of elevated CO₂ and temperature on NUE of Triticum aestivum L.

Abstract

Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.5⁰C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years.

Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Marketing Channel

Marketing Channel is an organised network of agencies and institutions which in combination perform all the activities required to link producers with users to accomplish the marketing tasks.
Marketing channel is the route taken by a product as it moves from the producer to the consumer.
It is a part of value chain – what the customers are prepared to pay for goods and services and all activities carried out in chain.
Marketing channels are sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use/consumption. Channels normally describe a forward-movement of products from sources to user. Reverse flow channels is used to reuse or recycle products, and to recycling or disposal of solid waste (ecological goods).

Abstract

Aquifers are usually composed of permeable layers that can ways a considerable amount of groundwater. Usually, aquifer units are correlated through the concept of lithostratigraphy. For low-permeable aquifers, it is difficult to define the spatial distribution of hydrogeological units, and this study attempts to use geochemical methods to identify the groundwater flow paths in an area of Southeast coast of Tamil Nadu, India. Multiple geochemical analyses, including groundwater chemistry; stable isotopic compositions of d¹⁸O and 8D contents were performed.  Spatial distribution of d¹⁸O, dD, Cl-/HCO-₃ show that northeastern part of the study area seriously affected by seawater intrusion. The highly permeable aquifers at the east coastal region are characterized by high hydraulic conductivity as compared with other regions of the study area. Hydrogeochemical characteristics based on bivariate diagrams of major and minor ions show that changes in the chemical composition of groundwater are mainly controlled by the salinization process followed by cation-exchange reactions.

2.1 Introduction

The word Nanotechnology has originated from a Greek word which means “dwarf” and nanometer is one billionth of a meter (1 nm = 10^-9 meter). The nano-scale is not just another step toward miniaturization but a qualitatively new scale. The new behiviour of matter at nano-scale is dominated by quantum mechanics, material confinement, large interfacial volume fraction and other unique properties, phenomenon and processes. At nano-scale, physics, chemistry and biology converge towards the same principles and tools. Nanotechnology cannot be considered as a discipline in science or technology but it is domain in science and technology. Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary area, any scientist, engineer, medical doctor can do research on nanotechnology. Presently, it is more of a science and less of a technology because of a lack of proper tools for studying the properties of nano-material. There is an immediate need to convert this science into technology and get out of this transition stage.

9.1 Introduction

Nanoparticles (NPs) are particulate matter with at least one dimension less than 100 nm (Christian et al., 2008). Although NPs are naturally present in the environment, manufactured NPs may have distinctive surface properties and chemistry in comparison with natural NPs (Handy et al., 2008). Manufactured NPs have a large area-to-volume ratio and size-dependent properties, which impart novel properties and behaviors that make them suitable for nanotechnology applications (Auffan et al., 2009). Range of applications for NPs has brought about a rapid development of the nanotechnology industry.

11.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is the manipulation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules, or molecular clusters into structures to create materials and devices with new or vastly different properties. Nanotechnology can work from the top down (which means reducing the size of the smallest structures to the nanoscale e.g. photonics applications in nanoelectronics and nanoengineering) or the bottom up (which involves manipulating individual atoms and molecules into nanostructures and more closely resembles chemistry or biology). The definition of nanotechnology is based on the prefix “nano” which is from the Greek word meaning “dwarf”. In more technical terms, the word “nano” means 10-9, or one billionth of something. It is a very promising new branch of small-scale technology named for the unit of measure at which it operates: the nanometer. Nanotechnology enables us to create functional materials, devices, and systems by controlling matter at the atomic and molecular scales, and to exploit novel properties and phenomena. Consider that most chemical and biological sensors, as well as many physical sensors, depend on interactions occurring at these levels and you’ll get an idea of the effect nanotechnology will have on the sensor world.

15.1 Introduction

It is important that we understand some terms like clay, mineral, clay mineral, activated clay, and nanocomposite clearly. In fact, “clay” is a soil separate consisting of particles of <2 µm (equivalent to <0.002 mm) in equivalent diameter (Brady & Weil, 2002; pages 18-19) in both USDA and International systems. While in nanotechnology, uniqueness of micro- and nana- aggregates is of crucial consideration. (In Chapter 8: The Colloidal Fraction (Brady & Weil, 2002) size dimensions of minerals are given eliminating any chance of confusion.) Now let us look at some definitions provided in the Glossary of the Clay Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee – Clay Science Project (www.clay.org; August 2011).

A tumour/neoplasm is caused by a purposeless multiplication of living cells. The word neoplasm means new growth. Tumours are common in carnivore as compared to other animals. Horse and cattle are mostly affected than sheep, pig and goats. Old animals are affected more commonly than young ones. Cancer, according to current opinion, is a multitude of different diseases and is no more a “one diseases’. Myriads of tumour types and plethora of their patho-physiology in different species necessitates species wise study of tumours in detail.  Of all species, dog develops cancer twice as frequently as humans. Mammary tumours rank second (behind skin tumours) as the most common neoplasm in dogs and constituting more than 50% tumours in bitches.

Soil is inhabited by incredibly diverse living microorganisms that are significant to plant growth and development. Soil microorganisms produce a variety of metabolites, probably several thousands, which influence the plant growth either positively or negatively. Therefore, in such a complex situation, identification of any one metabolite or a compound as active phytohormone or phytotoxin is really an uphill task. Appropriate extraction procedure, knowledge about the proper site for its action, appropriate conducive physiological environment and the effective intensity or concentration is of prime importance. Compounds, in general, are inhibitory to growth at higher concentrations but usually stimulatory at lower concentrations. All growth regulators, irrespective of their provenance or structure, may be divided into two groups.

Theory

ICT or Information and Communications Technology: The basket of technologies, which assist or support in storage, processing and dissemination/ communication of data/information. ICT thus includes technologies such as desktop and laptop computers, software and connection to the Internet that are intended to fulfil information processing and communication functions.

ICT Tools

    •    Word processing applications - used for preparing text documents.
    •     Presentation software - used for preparing presentations
    •     Spreadsheets - used for calculation and preparing tabular data with calculations
    •     Databases - used to store the information in the form of records and retrieving information using query mechanism.
    •    Multimedia – used to organize the information more meaningful manner with the help of text, images, animation, audio and videos
    •    Web browsers and E-mail – used to searching information and sending or receiving mail using Internet.

2.1. Introduction

A system of housing is more or less synonymous to the system of management of dairy cattle. Housing is essential to protect the animals from extreme climatic conditions, wild animals and theft. Housing also helps to maintain normal health of the animal by proper feeding, watering and reducing environmental stresses. An efficient housing system ultimately leads to an efficient management and reduce labour requirements to the minimum.

3.1. Introduction 

Calves are the future replacement stock of dairy farm. The raising of calves, an important operation of the dairy farm requires a great deal of managemental skill, application and constant attention. Any negligency results in increased calf mortality, poor growth and development of the calves. So, care of the calves is important for success of the dairy farm.

12.1. Introduction

Milking is the crucial operation in a dairy farm, as milk is the main source of revenue of a dairy farm. Milking is a labour intensive operation. About 50-60 percent of the total time of farm operation is required for milking and allied activities. Milking is an art which requires skill, patience, efficiency and experience. It should be handled quietly, quickly, gently, cleanly and completely, by avoiding any type of pain, annoyance or inconvenience to the animals. Possession of high yielding animals or good managemental conditions will not generate profit if the milking operation is inefficient.

21.1 Introduction

Plants and insects share a wonderful relationship. Both are dependent on each other at different levels and chemicals emitted by plants connect them to a large extent.  “Plants” contribute to a major share of occupancy on earth and makes several organisms such as insects & microbes and also humans to depend on them for their survival. This dependency leading to several interesting interactions between plants & insects which are often utilized by humans for their own benefit. Plants maintain incredible communication with their associated organisms. Since plants are rich banks of chemicals and constantly emit them in to its immediate environment which contributes in communication between insects and plants. Insects are the major organisms that have a long relation with the plants and there are several incredible ways how plants can interact with insect species.

23.1 Introduction

Cultural methods have been in practice for pest management in traditional systems of agriculture since time immemorial. The worldwide awareness of safe environment provided the impetus to foster non-chemical pest management strategies. Of these strategies, cultural control constitutes the most farmer-oriented approach, where the weak points in the biology and behaviour of insects are exploited and pressure is exerted on the population by manipulating the environment.  In addition to the cultural practices, the other widely used approach is the use of physical control methods which hold promise and provide an attractive alternative to current practices, particularly when integrated into a general control scheme incorporating cultural methods, plant breeding, biological or behavioural methods and pesticides. In physical control methods, the physical environment of the pest is modified in such a way that the insects no longer pose a threat to the agricultural crop.

INTRODUCTION

Food is the basic need of human beings. It gets spoiled primarily due to microorganisms and enzymes. Energy is required for microbial growth and enzymatic reactions. At low temperature, the rate of biochemical reactions is slow resulting in prolonged storage life of food. It must have been observed long back that food could be stored for longer period without deterioration during the winter months. Since then this principle is being used to extend the storage life of foods. A sea change can be observed in development of low temperature preservation technology. It has travelled a long journey to reach this stage; however, a major break through took place in twentieth century. Low temperature technology is of two types; refrigeration and freezing. In refrigeration storage, water is in liquid phase and temperature is maintained above freezing point. In freezing technology, the food is stored below freezing point and water gets converted into ice. The former is short term preservation due to slow growth of microbes and lower enzymatic activity while the later is long time preservation due to inactivation of enzymes during blanching and inhibition of microbial activity due to unavailability of free water and much lower temperature. Low temperature preservation is widely accepted and is of commercially important in food supply chain.

E numbers : Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500-E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

HACCP : The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market. or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

Abstract

With categories including food, building materials, medicinal plants and resins, non-wood forest products are the economically important face of biodiversity. Using non-wood forest products to generate income and alleviate poverty requires different approaches to their special characteristics. Among the features that distinguish non-wood forest products from other goods are the unpredictability of the quantities available, the lack of control of collectors over their growth conditions, and the difficulty of ensuring that the products can be placed on the market efficiently. In developed countries such as Finland, with under-harvesting of non-wood forest products, getting an economic benefit from these involves the seasonal migration of collectors. The latter is illustrated by the case of Thai in a working visit to Finland, to pick the often underutilized wild berry harvest in Lapland. The majority of the workers are from farming backgrounds, but there is a weak positive correlation between their non-wood forest product activity in Thailand and berry picking in Finland.

Abstract

Mahua (Madhuca spp.) is an important tree in India, with high socio-economic, environmental and spiritual values. We carried out this study among the local communities of Azamgarh district (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and with the Gond and Baiga tribes from Raisen and Dindori districts, Madhya Pradesh. Among the five mahua species found in Indian subcontinent, Madhuca latifolia is widely distributed in the north and central plains, the focal area of our study. Mahua has been vital to the survival of these communities, particularly the Gond and Baiga tribes, from the time immemorial. It has been a major source of food energy in the form of sugar, seed oil and alcohol. As well, different parts of the tree are used as ethnomedicine. The tribal people’s high regard for mahua is reflected by its sustainable and regulated use. In this study, we present an in-depth analysis of conservation, management and sustainable use of mahua, and also suggest its role in socio-economic adaptation, with particular reference to climate change.

Tremendous genetic diversity occur within different crops of this family with respect to their adaptability. Some cucurbits are grown in tropical, subtropical or arid deserts whereas other prefer to grow in temperate conditions. Harvested fruits and vegetables can be potentially exposed to numerous abiotic stresses during production, handling, storage and distribution (Hodges, 2003). However, when the abiotic stress is moderate or severe, quality losses almost always are incurred at market (Toivonen, 2003). Annually about 42% of the crop productivity is lost owing to various abiotic stress factors (Oerke et al., 1994). One of the key factors for abiotic stress in crop plants is the ill effect of global warming which may cause reduced precipitation, less snow pack, and earlier snow melt, leading to drought conditions. In addition about 20% of the world’s irrigated lands are affected by salinity (Zhu, 2001), a situation worsened by climate changes.

Introduction

Vegetables are the vital sources of minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres and play an important role in supplying nutrition to human health. Vegetables require comparatively lesser quantities of agro-inputs to grow. Vegetables are rich source of vitamins, minerals and plant fibres which provide food and nutritional security. These also generate high income and employment, particularly for small farmers. Vegetables being a rich and cheap source of vitamins and minerals, occupy an important place in the food basket of Indian consumers, a majority of whom are vegetarian. This persistent vegetarianism coupled with rising per capita income is fuelling a rapid growth in consumption of vegetables. Presently, India is producing more then 70 types of vegetables which are capable of meet out the economic and nutritional requirement of the country (Table 1). There has been a revolution in the production of vegetables in the country in the last four decades.

Introduction

Vegetable crops are an important component of Indian Agriculture. They are known for their short cycle and high productivity per unit area providing a valuable source of income leading to improve livelihood. The prosperity and advancement of a nation largely depend on achieving nutritional security to its people. The vegetables play a vital role as major supplement to food and nutritional security of our people. They are important source of nutrients like b- carotene, vitamin B, C, E as well as folic acid, iron, magnesium, etc. and they also supply fair amounts of carbohydrate, protein, fiber, antioxidants and energy.

Introduction

Green house is a structure in which external climatic factors can be controlled for cultivation and protection of crops. It has mainly two parts. (a)  a frame or the basic structure and (b) the cladding or covering material (U.V. film) Frame can be made of G.I. pipes, bamboos, woods or iron rods while the cover can be of glass or plastic films. In India the technology is primarily used. Greenhouse technology is more suited to vegetables crops (such as tomato, cauliflower, capsicum, cucumber, leafy vegetables etc.), and flowers (like rose, gerbera, carnation, etc).  This technology is mainly suitable for commercial farming, as it requires investment in setting up the entire framework.  Based on cooling systems of the greenhouse, it can be classified as naturally ventilated and fan-pad type greenhouse.

Introduction

Plant hormones (also known as phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate plant growth, which are termed ‘plant growth substances’. Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant and occur in extremely low concentrations. Plant hormones are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition: indole compounds, terpenes, adenine derivatives, steroids, aliphatic hydrocarbons and derivatives of carotenoids or fatty acids. In the context of rooted habit and iterative mode of growth, plant hormones are not produced in specialized glands, but in most parts of the plants. Plant hormones are required in minicule quantities and their concentrations at sites of activity are precisely regulated. Changes in hormones concentration and tissue sensitivity mediate a whole range of development processes in plants, many of which involve interaction with environmental factors. First five hormones discovered from the plants were gibberellins, abscisic acid, cytokinins, indole-3-acetiv acid, and ethylene as well as some compound shown more recently to have a regulatory role in plant development, namely, brassinosteroids, polyamines, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid.

Introduction

Integrated disease management in horticultural crops are of paramount importance these days, keeping in view that a single management practice cannot control multiple diseases in a particular agro ecological system. It is therefore worthwhile that all management practices are integration of cultural, physical, biological and chemical control strategies. The routine application of fungicides for insurance purposes is not appropriate, as it does not focus the proper attention on the real problem and can lead to resistance and potential environmental issues. Fungal, bacterial, viral diseases cause a great damage to the horticultural crops thus resulting in economic losses to the farmers. The extent of damage varies from year to year, location wise and variety involved. The pathogens responsible for causing diseases affect the crop at various stages of their development right from seedling stage to harvest. The manifestation of a disease can be in the form of different symptoms viz., damping off, leaf spot, blight, wilt, etc. It is thus important to properly identify a particular disease in a crop on knowledgeable basis to reach a particular end of profitability. As such, a proper disease diagnosis is of paramount importance.

Introduction

Insect pests cause enormous loss to horticultural crops through direct and indirect invasion on various plant parts. It is estimated from the available information in the literature that there are about 1000 insect pests species on about 100 major and minor horticultural crops in India (Sharma et al., 2011).  The yield and quality of produce are central system point to the sustainable horticultural production. If not properly managed, pests can dramatically reduce crop yield, quality and subsequent returns. We invest a lot of time, money and natural resources into growing horticultural crops. Good pest management could protect this investment from avoidable losses.

Introduction

India has very old and long tradition of flower cultivation. With changing life styles and increased urban affluence, floriculture has assumed a definite commercial status in recent times. Improved communication facilities have increased their availability in every part of the country. Floriculture in India is being viewed as a rapidly growing industry. In India, at present total area under flower crops is about 2,33,000 ha with production of about 17.29 lakh tonnes of loose flowers and 76732 lakh  number of cut flowers (NHB database, 2013).The important floricultural crops in the international flower trade are rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera, gladious, gypsophila, liastris, bird of paradise, orchids, anthurium, tulip, lilies, etc. All the flowers and ornamentals are the most perishable commodities needs special care during harvesting, handling, storage and transport. The losses can be both, quantitative as well as qualitative, which result in loss in terms of monitory value.

Meaning of Advertising

According to Concise Oxford Dictionary, the word to advertise means to make generally or publicly with a view to increasing sales. The word ‘advertising’ is derived from the Latin word ‘advertese’ which means ‘to turn (the mind) to’. Advertising means providing adequate knowledge about some special product/service/idea to potential consumers so that they are stimulated to buy it. Adequate knowledge about a product means to let people know the name of the product, its function, size, price and place of its availability. The organizations providing service or idea give information regarding where, how and on what conditions their service or idea can be made available and how the same can be helpful to the people. Today is the age of competition. Consumers buy commodities after careful consideration. Under the circumstances, manufacturers are faced with the problem of how to motivate the consumers to buy their product. To find a solution to this problem, manufacturers make use of advertising.

1. Feminization of Agriculture

Almost all active women in rural India can be considered as ‘farmers’, in some sense – working as agricultural labourer, unpaid workers in the family farm enterprise, or combination of the two. Moreover, several farm activities traditionally carried out by men are also being undertaken by women as men are pulled away into higher paying employment. Thus rural India is witnessing a process which could be described as ‘feminization of agriculture’. The significantly high and growing population of female headed households has also highlighted women’s contribution to agriculture.

Since time immemorial, women have played and continued to play a key role in conservation of basic life support system, such as, land, water, flora and fauna. Women power at present constitutes nearly half of the global population and account one third of the total work force. They contribute more than half of duties and responsibilities but are not given proper rights. In India till now rural women continue to struggle with dual responsibilities of economic production and domestic labour, and most are confronted by poverty, illiteracy, high health risks, inadequate access to productive resources, and lack of credit/market access. The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of women’s social, political, legal and economic status is essential for sustainable rural development

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) belonging to family Apiaceace is an important seed spice believed to be indigenous to northern Egypt, East Mediterranean region, Iran, Turkey  and India (Amin, 2003; Raghavan, 2007). It is popularly known as safed jeera and is one of the most common spices of daily use in the Indian sub-continent. Cumin is well known to ancient civilization. It is one of the oldest spices known since biblical times, valued mostly for their digestive properties and for flaovouring bread and other dishes during the periods of ceremonial fasting. As early as 5000 BC, Egyptians preserved the bodies of their kings by mummifying them with cumin, anise and marjoram.

In this era of computer, mathematical models become integral part of hydrologic studies due to advancement in soft technology. But question always arises as ‘Why should modeling?’ It was well expressed by Rosenblueth and Wiener (1945) as

No substantial part of the universe is so simple that it can be grasped and controlled without abstraction. Abstraction consists in replacing the parts of the universe under consideration by a model of similar but simpler structure. Models, formal or intellectual on the one hand, or material on the other are thus a central necessity of scientific procedure.

Moringa oleifera Linn. belongs to the family Moringaceae, that consists of only one genus with about 13 species of deciduous trees (Keay, 1989). It is believed to be the native of India-Pakistan-Nepal borders, but now is becoming widely distributed and grown in several countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Satti et al., 2013). Besides some other species, M. oleifera is recently being the most widely cultivated in numerous countries in Asia, including the Arabian Peninsula, central and south America and in most African countries like Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameron, Senegal, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Sudan (Nasir and Ali, 1972; Ramachandran et al., 1980 and Parrotta, 2001).

Delicious and crunchy apple fruit is one of the most popular fruit favoured by health conscious, fitness freaks who believe in “health is wealth”. It is one of the popular wonderful fruit that contains a long list of essential nutrients that in the true sense are indispensable for human health. The antioxidants in apple have many health promoting and disease prevention properties; thus justifying the adage “An apple a day keeps the doctor away”. Apples help in controlling heart diseases, weight loss and cholesterol levels. Apples do not have any cholesterol instead they have fibre which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption and thus are low in calories. Unpeeled apples provide plenty of nutrients which are present just under the skin. Apples are a good source of minerals like potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron, vitamins of B-complex such as riboflavin and pyridoxine (vitamin B6), vitamin C, folic acid and beta carotene. Apart from this they also contain appreciable quantities of tartaric acid that gives tart flavour to them.