eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Various procedures which are used for genetic improvement of crop plants are known as breeding methods. The breeding approaches that are more commonly used for genetic improvement of crop plants are called conventional breeding methods. Following conventional breeding methods were followed in improvement of crops.
    (A)    Plant introduction
    (B)    Pureline selection
    (C)    Mass selection
    (D)    Progeny selection
    (E)    Synthetic and composite breeding
    (F)    Pedigree method
    (G)    Bulk method
    (H)    Backcross method
    (I)    Heterosis breeding
    (J)    Clonal selection

INTRODUCTION

Various procedures which are used for genetic improvement of crop plants are known as breeding methods. The breeding approaches that are more commonly used for genetic improvement of crop plants are called conventional breeding methods. Following conventional breeding methods were followed in improvement of crops.

(A)Plant introduction

(B)Pureline selection

(C)Mass selection

(D)Progeny selection

(E)Synthetic and composite breeding

(F)Pedigree method

(G)Bulk method

(H)Backcross method

(I)Heterosis breeding

(J)Clonal selection

Cereal grains and cereal by-products
The appropriate nutrition of livestock necessitates the inclusion of a specific proportion of cereals and their byproducts. For poultry and swine, cereals constitute the primary element of their daily dietary intake. Consequently, there exists a direct competition for these cereal resources between livestock and humans. Specifically, only 2% of rice and wheat, 5% of sorghum, 10% of barley and maize, and 50% of bajra and ragi are allocated for animal feed.
Cereals belong to the Gramineae family and are classified as annual plants (Khariff). These grains are primarily composed of carbohydrates, with starch being the predominant component of their dry matter, concentrated in the endosperm. Cereal grains are abundant in TDN and net energy, making them highly palatable to livestock. The DCP content ranges from 7% to 10%, while TDN levels fall between 70% and 80% for ruminants. In non-ruminants, such as pigs and poultry, these energy-rich grains can be incorporated into their diets at proportions of approximately 50% to 70%.
Structure of a grain: Grain kernels are referred to as caryopses. Those grains that possess husks, such as oats, barley and rice, are classified as covered caryopses, while grains that lack husks, including maize, wheat, rye, and sorghum, are termed naked caryopses. Each kernel, excluding the husk, consists of two primary components: the pericarp and the seed.
Pericarp: This structure is composed of two distinct layers. The outer layer, which includes the epidermis and hydroderm, is collectively known as the beeswing. The inner layer of the pericarp is characterized by the presence of cross cells and tube cells.
Seed: The seed is further divided into four components: the seed coat, hyaline layer, endosperm, and germ (embryo). When the grain undergoes processing that removes both the germ and the starch endosperm, the remaining parts of the seed along with the pericarp are referred to as bran.

Protein supplements can be obtained from animal origin or plant origin. Animal origin has mostly over 47% CP, 1.0% Ca, 1.5% P and fewer than 2.5% fiber while plant origin has mostly less than 47% CP, 1.0% Ca, 1.5% P and over 2.5% fibre. Other sources from which protein supplements can be obtained include NPN compounds, single cell protein etc.
Plant Origin Oil Cakes
In India, oilseeds occupy a significant position in terms of both production area and economic value, ranking second only to food grains. The country is the third-largest producer of oilseeds globally, following the United States and China. Approximately 12-13% of the world’s oilseed cultivation occurs in India, contributing to 6-8% of global oilseed output and 5-7% of the world’s oilseed cake production. Additionally, India is a notable exporter of soybean meal, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings.
The agro-ecological conditions in India are conducive to the cultivation of seven key edible oilseeds, namely groundnut, soybean, mustard-rapeseed, sesame, sunflower, safflower and niger. Furthermore, India also produces two significant non-edible oilseeds: linseed and castor. The country is involved in the production of tree oilseeds as well, including coconut and oil palm.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an escalating threat to global health, eroding the efficacy of antibiotics and complicating the management of bacterial infections. The proliferation of resistant pathogens, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum betalactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae, and multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, has driven significant increases in morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. The ability to detect AMR accurately and promptly is paramount for guiding clinicians in selecting effective therapies, implementing targeted infection control measures, and informing public health strategies to curb the spread of resistant organisms. Conventional methods, rooted in phenotypic assessments, have served as the cornerstone of AMR detection in clinical microbiology laboratories for decades. These techniques evaluate bacterial growth under controlled exposure to antibiotics, offering direct evidence of resistance or susceptibility that molecular approaches, which focus on genetic markers, may miss due to silent mutations, complex regulatory mechanisms, or novel resistance pathways. This chapter provides an exhaustive examination of conventional AMR detection methods, encompassing disk diffusion, broth and agar dilution, gradient diffusion, and automated susceptibility testing systems. These approaches, refined through decades of clinical and research application, remain indispensable for their reliability, cost-effectiveness, and adaptability across diverse settings, from well-resourced tertiary hospitals to laboratories in low-income regions. By exploring their principles, procedures, applications, and limitations, we aim to underscore their enduring significance amidst the rise of rapid molecular diagnostics. The discussion also addresses specialized tests for detecting specific resistance mechanisms, such as beta-lactamase production, inducible clindamycin resistance, and carbapenem’s activity, which are critical for tailoring antimicrobial therapy. Through a critical lens, this chapter evaluates the strengths and challenges of these methods, offering insights into their role in addressing the global AMR crisis, their integration with emerging technologies, and their continued relevance in both routine diagnostics and epidemiological surveillance. The value of conventional methods lies in their ability to translate laboratory findings into actionable clinical decisions. Unlike genotypic methods, which detect resistance genes but may not predict phenotypic behaviour, these techniques assess how bacteria respond to antibiotics under conditions mimicking in vivo environments, aligning closely with therapeutic outcomes. As resistance patterns grow increasingly complex, driven by mechanisms like carbapenem’s and efflux pumps, conventional methods provide a practical foundation for diagnostics, particularly in resource-limited settings where advanced molecular tools are often inaccessible. Their role in global AMR surveillance, such as through the World Health Organization’s Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS), further underscores their importance in tracking resistance trends and informing policy.

Crop disease forecasting is a crucial component of integrated crop management, enabling farmers and agricultural practitioners to anticipate and prepare for potential disease outbreaks. The importance of crop disease forecasting cannot be overstated, as it allows for the timely implementation of disease management strategies, reducing the risk of yield losses and minimizing the use of chemical pesticides. Conventional methods of crop disease forecasting have been widely used for decades, relying on observations of weather patterns, crop phenology, and disease symptoms to predict the likelihood of disease outbreaks. These methods have been refined over time, incorporating new technologies and data sources to improve their accuracy and reliability (Fig. 10.1). Despite the advent of modern technologies, such as machine learning and remote sensing, conventional methods of crop disease forecasting remain a vital tool for many farmers and agricultural practitioners. These methods are often simple, cost-effective, and accessible, making them particularly suitable for smallscale farmers and resource-constrained agricultural systems. This chapter will provide an overview of conventional methods of crop disease forecasting, highlighting their principles, advantages, and limitations. The chapter will also discuss the importance of crop disease forecasting in modern agriculture, emphasizing its role in promoting sustainable crop production and reducing the environmental impact of agricultural practices.
10.1 Conventional methods of Forecasting
There are several conventional methods of crop disease forecasting that have been widely used for decades. Some of these methods include:
10.1.1 Weather-based forecasting
This method uses weather data, such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity, to predict the likelihood of disease outbreaks. Weather-based forecasting models use statistical relationships between weather variables and disease incidence to make predictions (Fig. 10.2).

Disease diagnosis refers to the various procedures and techniques used to identify the nature of disease and to precisely pinpoint the primary and secondary pathogens involved. Disease diagnosis is an integral part of health management. Proper diagnosis helps to adopt accurate therapy and avoids indiscriminate use of chemotherapeutics. Information on case history and clinical signs should be carefully used while examining samples for diagnosis. By following rational and scientific sampling protocols, one can hope to arrive at accurate diagnosis. Sampling methodology is key to the success of proper disease diagnosis. Dead fish/shrimp should never be used for any diagnostic purpose. Autolytic post-mortem changes, saprophytic invaders, spoilage organisms, etc. mask the actual etiological agents and can lead to false diagnosis.

The three commonly used conventional diagnostic approaches are fresh examination using microscope, microbiological methods and histopathology. With little facilities and infrastructure, fresh microscopical diagnostic approach can be done at the farm/hatchery site itself. Gross examinations along with simple skin and gill preparations examined under microscope can many a times give very good information about the disease and the etiology. All fresh preparations should be made from live or moribund fish and the preparations should be wet and moist. The fish meant for examination should be kept wet and not allowed to dry. Many of the commonly occurring external disease problems can be easily diagnosed by this method.

Systemic bacterial diseases need to be positively diagnosed by adopting the microbiological approach. Samples for bacterial isolations should be taken from kidney, blood, body cavity, etc. from live or moribund fish following strict aseptic conditions. In shrimp, it is ideal to use hemolymph for bacterial isolations. Dominant bacterial isolates are identified following standard procedures and their antibacterial sensitivity tested before recommending any antibacterial therapy. This method requires a minimum of 4-5 days.

There is no better engineering than life.

What is life - is a perennial question. Life is defined in different ways depending upon who is defining it. Biologists define life using a list of characteristics, such as metabolism, evolution, homeostasis, constant transformation, genetic information, etc. Life has been defined as self-maintaining and self-producing systems. Physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1), argued that living organisms escape the destiny of disordered equilibrium because they are able to take up ‘orderliness’ from their environment. Philosophers have defined life from different angles. They say that life can only be understood fully from an ‘insider’ perspective.

Life is not a random collection of extinct molecules. It is a process of dynamic renewal; everything in life is constantly turning over and renewed. Life exists in diverse forms. Each form is specialised to survive and reproduce in its particular niche.

One understands life from one’s own perspective. For some, life is an ‘objects in flux’ that constantly exchanges matter with the environment. It is systematic material exchange into an organized body. Then there is a view that says that all living organisms deserve moral consideration. All living organisms, however, do not have equal moral significance; vertebrates, for various reasons, deserve more moral consideration than would bacteria or plants. Then there are myriad religious ways to define life. The simplest is “God created the world and all living organisms.” No further questions, accept or reject the hypothesis.

Abstract

This chapter highlights the importance of re-engineering the functional processes prevalent in organizations today and realigning organizational resources with policies, procedures and systems that foster innovation in the technological and managerial space and institutionalize long term sustainability of businesses in emerging market economies such as India. These economies can serve as an engine for growth in a globalized era, if the intellectual capital of these economies is utilized and enhanced with maximum possible efficiency. It is in this scenario where entrepreneurial and decision making techniques based on the knowledge management-organizational learning continuum can help in the confluence of open innovation practices and stable management expertise. Such a comprehensive strategic shift from being a financial economy to a knowledge economy needs to be supported by integration of practical actions with the untapped cognitive potential of emerging economies. This chapter shall also be useful in explaining the importance of coexistence of competition and cooperation for enhancing the viability of the organizational ecosystem in the emergent Indian economy. 

1.0. Objectives

• To describe how to develop thoughts in various situations
• To manifest the methods to judge the mind of people
• To make learners familiar with ready sentences
• To practice to imagine the consequence of conversation
• To learn to use interrogative adverbs effectively
• Impart the manner to utter information, ideas, and concepts in a more polite way

Organic farming necessitates a shift from conventional to non-chemical agricultural methods and practices. For this, it needs creation of facilities for the production of organic inputs, adoption of crop rotation, green manuring and other best management practices for the organic production of crops and livestock. Further, the ‘towards organic approach’ in intensive agricultural areas and ‘scientific organic farming’ in niche areas have to be implemented for development of an organic farm. The synthesized information on how to convert an inorganic farm into an organic farm followed by its sustainable maintenance is the need of the hour. This chapter holistically deals with designing and maintaing the whole ecosystem organic.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, the growers, policymakers and consumers are talking about organic farming (OF) across the globe. For practitioners, it is still a confusion regarding what and how to practice OF. There is a wrong notion that simple addition of organic manures and the use of chemical pesticides for growing different crops is considered as organic farming. In sense real, organic farms are the cultivated fields without addition of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, livestock additives, etc., and only organic and (or) non-chemical methods are practiced, and the concept or practice is known as organic farming. A large number of farms have been converted from conventional into chemical farms during the last more than 50 years by using synthetic chemicals. In view of the increasing demand for organic products and spiraling soil and human health problems, there is need to transform them gradually into organic farms. So that, it can help enhance soil organic carbon status and fertility which in turn can support crop growth and produce healthy foods besides protecting the environment. However, the extent of chemical used might be varying from one farm to another depending on the crops cultivated, nutrient requirement, pest/ disease severity, availability and accessibility to chemical use, socio-economic condition of the farmers, geographical location, etc.

The Metric System

At present metric system is followed to calculate final results in analysis work. This system is quite simple in nature as well as in principle. The units of the metric system are: (1) the  metre (linear measure), (2) the litre (measure of capacity), and (3) the gram (measure of mass.)

One litre is the volume of pure water at 4ºC and 760 mm pressure which weigh 1 kilogram (kg). One litre equals 1000.027 cubic centimetres (Cm3) for most work, the units “millilitre”, “cubic centimetre” and used interchangeably.

At present there are three different temperature scales in common use. These are: the Fahrenheit (F), used chiefly in English-speaking countries. the centigrade (C), used universally in scientific work and the Absolute (T) or Kelvin (K) scale, differing from the centigrade only in the position of the zero point, its divisions being of the same size. its zero point is -273ºC. The kelvin scale is used especially in dealing with very high or very low temperature and in computations involving the laws of gases. The following formulae can be used for converting one scale to another:

Conversion of muscle to meat is a complex process in which several physical and chemical changes takes place over a period of several hours or even days. The major changes which take place during this process include fall in muscle pH and temperature as well as muscle shortening which further leads to proteolysis or ageing. These changes during conversion of muscles to meat are variable and have great effect on meat quality (tenderness, juiciness, flavour, colour etc.) and also on certain processing characteristics like emulsification, binding properties and yield of the products. To know this complex process it is necessary to understand the process of energy production and metabolic pathway shifting in live animals.

Pre Slaughter

In the living animal, aerobic metabolism is used to obtain energy. The source of energy at this stage is either free fatty acids or blood glucose or muscle glycogen. In this process total 38 ATP molecules are produced from single glucose or glycogen molecule by the complex processes known as glycolysis, oxidative decarboxylation and oxidative phosphorylation. However, under stressful situations, anaerobic metabolism may be used and lactic acid is produced. Lactic acid is usually transported from the muscles to the liver, where it is re-synthesized into glucose and glycogen, or to the heart, where it is metabolized to carbon dioxide and water.

Effective application of pesticides depends on many factors. One of the more important is to correctly calculate the amount of material needed. Unless you have the correct amount of pesticide in your tank mix, even a correctly calibrated sprayer can apply the wrong rate.

Manufacturers provide application rate instructions on every pesticide label. Due to the variety of ways in which these recommendations are stated (such as lbs. of active ingredient (a.i.) per acre, lbs. of formulation per 100 gal. of spray, or ozs, of a.i. per 1,000 sq. ft.) it is often necessary to adapt the recommendations to different areas and volumes, or even other units. Sometimes the amount of active ingredient must be converted to the amount of actual product. This process can be very confusing.

6.1 Introduction

In order to increase the production and productivity of crops, provision of irrigation system is highly essential. A project that makes use of weir or a barrage for providing irrigation to fields is called as direct irrigation system. On the other hand, a storage irrigation system makes use of storage reservoir by construction of dams. In order to provide irrigation by both the schemes, it is necessary to have a network of canal systems. A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground to carry water to the fields. The canal systems that provide water to the fields include main canals, branch canals, distributaries, minors and watercourses. It is imperative to design the canal systems properly for a certain realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the command areas. The flow irrigation that provides irrigation water to the fields may be of two types i.e. Inundation irrigation and Perennial irrigation.

9.1 Introduction

In order to increase the production and productivity of crops, provision of irrigation system is highly essential. A project that makes use of weir or a barrage for providing irrigation to fields is called as direct irrigation system. On the other hand, a storage irrigation system makes use of storage reservoir by construction of dams. In order to provide irrigation by both the schemes, it is necessary to have a network of canal systems. A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground to carry water to the fields. The canal systems that provide water to the fields include main canals, branch canals, distributaries, minors and watercourses. It is imperative to design the canal systems properly for a certain realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the command areas. The flow irrigation that provides irrigation water to the fields may be of two types i.e. Inundation irrigation and Perennial irrigation.