eChapters

Importance of nutrient management in crop production can be very well explained by conducting various field trails by different fertilizer nutrient, methods of application and sources of fertilizer. Experiments on nutrient management are being carried out to study the impact of nutrient application, new techniques of fertilizer application, sources and doses of fertilizers on plant growth, yield and soil fertility and their efficiency over existing one was elucidated through various efficiency indices. The following efficiencies are normally being used in nutrient management studies.

Agricultural water consumes about 85% of the available water. The future hopes to solve world’s food problem lies in irrigation development. Considering the need of efficient management of water, which is crucial at this point understanding of different efficiencies of the irrigation related experiments or projects, is necessary. Irrigation efficiency is used to evaluate how effectively the available water is used in crop production. Water is conveyed through canal system, watercourses and channels to crop fields. Irrigation is applied to store water in the effective root zone of soil for use of crops. A considerable loss occurs after its diversion from sources to its actual use by crops. The extent of water loss in the process decides the irrigation efficiency. Irrigation efficiency declines as the water loss increases. A high efficiency of an irrigation project is always desirable. The efficiency may be estimated for various operations beginning from diversion of water to its actual use by crops, uniformity in its distribution in the root zone, its use for crop productivity, economics and so on.

The rhizosphere is the narrow zone of soil surrounding the root that is under the immediate influence of the root system. This zone is rich in nutrients when compared with the bulk soil, due to the accumulation of a variety of organic compounds released from roots by exudation, secretion and deposition. Organic compounds released by plant roots include amino acids, fatty acids, nucleotides, organic acids, phenolics, plant growth regulators, putrescine, sterols, sugars and vitamins. Because these organic compounds can be used as carbon and energy source by microorganisms, microbial growth and activity is particularly intense in the rhizosphere.

Abstract
Better seed production technology is vital to furnish quality seed of improved varieties. Trees are generally propagated from seeds and the suitability and quality of the seeds have a big effect on the success of the plantations, afforestation and reforestation programmes raised from them. It must be stressed that good seed implies seed which is both of high viability and vigour and is genetically well suited to the site and to the purpose for which it is planted. The use of sound seed from stands of high inherent quality is widely recognized as the best means of ensuring fast-grown and healthy plantations capable of yielding high quality wood. Quantity, as well as quality, of seed production is important. Seed quality depends on factors like source, time and techniques of harvest, processing and storage practices. Unlike agriculture, the forestry seeds have great variation in size, shape, dormancy, viability, moisture content, etc.

Abstract

The availability of the quality seed is the first and the most important requirement which is of great relevance in tree improvement programme. Unlike agriculture, the forestry seeds have great variation in size, shape, dormancy, viability, moisture content, etc. It needs special techniques for collection, handling, processing and storage of the seeds of the large number of forest species. A strong commitment to improving tree seed technology is required for full utilization of seed supplies with the help of recent advances in seed physiology. Substantial improvements have occurred as a result of seed technology research offering the potential for major advances in traditional seed production and distribution systems.

A key question facing agricultural scientists in the 21^st century is how to produce sufficient amounts of food, feed and farm income while protecting and improving environmental quality (Robertson and Swinton, 2005). Intensive soil tillage, mismanagement of land, water and fertilizers had severe negative economic, environmental and social consequences (Foley et al., 2011; Godfray and Garnett, 2014; Tilman et al., 2011). Presently depletion and / or degradation of natural resources (land, water, and biodiversity), decreasing farm profitability, low input use efficiency (fertilizer, water, energy, pesticides, and labor), environmental pollution (soil, water, air), climate change and scarcity of farm labour are threatening the sustainability of crop production systems.

Introduction

Plants are often subjected to unfavorable environmental conditions – abiotic factors, causing abiotic stresses - that play a major role in determining productivity of crop yields but also the differential distribution of the plants species across different types of environment. Some examples of abiotic stresses that a plant may face include decreased water availability, extreme temperatures (heating or freezing), decreased availability of soil nutrients and/or excess of toxic ions, excess of light and increased hardiness of drying soil that hamper roots growth. The ability of plants to adapt and/or acclimate to different environments is directly or indirectly related with the plasticity and resilience of photosynthesis, in combination with other processes, determining plant growth and development, namely reproduction. A remarkable feature of plant adaptation to abiotic stresses is the activation of multiple responses involving complex gene interactions and crosstalk with many molecular pathways.

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L. Family-Palmaceae) also known as Khajoor or Kharek is an ancient important fruit tree of semi-arid and arid regions of the world. It grows well under poor desertic soils due to its hardy plant characteristics and deep root system. It is also one of the most suitable fruit trees, which can be easily grown under saline conditions. Date palm grows as much as one feet per year, and as high as 80-100 feet under favorable environment. It is well known fact for date palm that its feet in the water and its head in sun. It requires dry hot climate for growth and development of fruits. In arid region, crop production is risky preposition, where date palm cultivation contributes in achieving food security, high nutritive value food, crop diversification, desertification control, income generation and foreign exchange earnings. It can be grown at such places, where adequate irrigation facility is available; besides, other climatic requirements (Chandra et al, 1992, Singh et al, 2007). The date tree has religious significance. The fruits are used during holy month of Ramzan by Muslim peoples. As Saudi Arabia is principal producer of date palm in the world, the palm tree is incorporated in the national emblem of Saudi Arabia to represent vitality and growth

Introduction

The concept of database is the approach to information organization in computer-based data processing. (Date, 1995 and Everest, 1986).

A Geographic Information System is as good as the data contained in it. Accurate and efficiently organized data are critical to the durability of the system. Data collection, capture and organization will occupy much of the time in building a GIS solution. The analysis potential of a GIS will depend on the database. It is essential to understand database concepts to practice GIS. It is erroneous to view these GIS databases as mere stores of information. The database is used to abstract very specific sorts of information about reality and organize it in a way that will prove useful during subsequent analysis. The database should be viewed as a representation or model of the world developed for a very specific application.

Conversion of real world geographical variation into discrete objects is done through data models. They represent the linkage between the real world domain of geographic data and computer representation of these features. Data models discussed here are for representing the spatial information.

Minimum field standards for seed production have been prescribed  for each crop. The major components to be looked into for meeting the field standards are: 
   Preceding crops 
   Isolation distance 
   Number of field inspections 

The minimum proceding crop requirement has been specified to minimize genetic contamination on account of volunteer plants germinating from the left over seeds in the previous season. The disease contamination is also possible from soil borne disease organisms if the previous crop was not certified. The preceding crop requirement would mean that for a prescribed minimum period the same crop or any other contaminating crop should not have been grown on the same field where seed production is to be taken up unless the preceding crop was a seed crop and had met the field/the seed standards.

The genetically engineered (GE) seeds developed using recombinant DNA technology often referred to as transgenics or genetically modified organism (GMOs) provide an usually adaptable, scale neutral technology for the farmers. Even small farmers can benefit from such seeds provided the seeds are made available at reasonable cost. While growing such seeds the existing crop management practices are usually sufficient. The transgenics or GMOs are also defined as those organisms with a gene or gene construct of interest that has been introduced by molecular or recombinant DNA techniques. These exclude organisms produced by conventional breeding as well as organism produced by rearrangement of genetic materials by physical methods or by chemical means. Thus, GMO’s carry trangene(s) which when integrated and expressed stably and properly, confer either a new trait to the organism which was hitherto not present (such as insect resistance), or enhance an already existing trait such as nutritional quality (Prasana 2001).

Cotton is a major crop of India grown in about 9.0 million hectares.This is the largest cotton area in the world. Thus, India ranks Ist among cotton growing countries in the world in terms of area. However, average cotton yields in India have been 320 kg/ha as compared to world cotton yield average of 580 kg/ha. Thus, cotton production in India represents only about 13% of the total world production whereas India accounts for approximately 20% of the world’s total cotton area. Obviously, yield levels in India are low compared to world average. The low yield levels in India are partly due to heavy losses from insect pests, particularly cotton bollworm complex.

Weeds are a serious menace and these reduce the quality and yield of crops substantially. Chemical as well as mechanical methods are being used to control the weeds. The weeding was traditionally done by “khurpa” up to mid 60s. This tool requires its operation in a sitting posture, which reduces the work rate. The use of long handled tools like “kasola” became popular because these allowed their operation in a standing posture, which increases the mobility and thus the work rate. Weeder is a mechanical device to remove the weeds (unwanted plants) from the cultivated crop. A wide variety of weeders are used in the countries, which may be categorized in three groups viz. manual weeder, animal or tractor drawn weeder and power weeder or self-propelled rotary weeder (Singh, 2007; Pandey et al., 1997; Pandey and Ganesan, 2005).

Management of paddy straw is one of the important problems being faced by the farmers. Burning of rice straw in the field is the traditional method being practiced by most of the farmers, which causes atmospheric pollution and nutrient loss. There are three options available to manage the straw viz. i) burning the straw in the field, ii) collecting/baling the straw from the field, and incorporation of straw in the field. If rice straw is not burnt then baling may provide an attractive economic environmentally safe option. Manual collection of paddy straw is a laborious job and also storing the large volume of straw is another problem. As for as paddy straw is concerned, it has higher silica content so animals do not prefer it.

1    Introduction to Patent Laws    540

2.    An Overview of the Patenting Process    541

    2.1.    Inventor’s disclosure, 542
    2.2.    Patentability search, 542
    2.3.    Patent application preparation, 542
    2.4.    Patent application amendment, 542
    2.5.    Patent application examination, 543
    2.6    Main parts of a patent, 543
    2.7.    Granting of patent, 544
    2.8.    Date and term of patent, 544
    2.9.    Provisional specification, 544
    2.10.    Complete specification, 545
    2.11.      Cost of patenting, 545

Abstract

The structure and function of proteins involved in plant-microbe interactions is investigated through large-scale proteomics technology in a complex biological sample. Since the whole genome sequence are now available for several plant species and microbes, proteomics study has became easier, accurate and huge amount of data can be generated during plant-microbe interactions. Proteomics approaches are highly important and relevant in many studies and showed that only genomics approaches is not sufficient as much significant information are lost as the proteins and not the genes coding them are final product which is responsible for the observed phenotype.

Abstract

The phosphorus deficiency in soil is a major problem for agricultural production as phosphorus is one of the major constituents in energy metabolism and biosynthesis of nucleic acids and cell membranes. The phosphorous present in soil is an important macronutrient for the growth and development of the plants. The phosphorus occurs in two forms in soil, organic and inorganic. The phytates (salts of phytic acid) constitute the major form of organic phosphorus other than nucleic acids, phospholipids and other compounds in soil. Phytate-phosphorus is not readily available to plants due to its chelation with metal ions forming insoluble complexes or adsorbed to soil particles. Phosphate solubilizing and phytate hydrolyzing microorganisms, bacteria and fungi, are ubiquitous in cultivated, wetland, grassland and forest soils, which play an important role in supplying soluble phosphorus to plants. Microbes hydrolyze organic forms of phosphorus by secreting phytases and acidic/alkaline phosphatases. By genetic engineering, several attempts have been made to develop transgenic plants which are able to utilize phytates as sole source of phosphorus for their growth and development. This review focuses on the applicability of microbial phytases in promoting the growth and development of various crop plants.

Abstract

Of the various rhizosphere associated bacteria, Azospirillum species are probably the most studied and appear to have significant potential for commercial application. During the last 35 years of studies of Azospirillum–plant interaction, over 20 proposals were suggested for the mechanism of action by which Azospirillum  enhances plant growth, yield and nutrient uptake. Besides, fixing the nitrogen with associative symbiosis, they impart a number of beneficial effects on plants such as phytohormone production, siderophore production, enzyme production, proliferation of root system, enhanced water and mineral uptake, mobilization of minerals, mitigation of environmental stressors of plants, and moderate biocontrol potential. The following plant responses to Azospirillum inoculation in agriculture crops were often reported: increase the germination percentage and height of the seedlings, increase the total number and length of adventitious roots and root hairs, increase the hydraulic conductivity of the root system, increase in the height of the shoot and dry matter production and yield of the crop plants. The effect of Azospirillum inoculation on the total yield increases of field grown plants generally ranged from 10 to 30 per cent. This article reviews the recent researches on role of Azospirillum in plant growth promotion.

Introduction

Gel electrophoresis is a technique for separating charged molecules with different sizes. Two kinds of gels are commonly used: agarose and polyacrylamide. Agarose gels can be applied to a wider range of sizes than polyacrylamide gels.  By using standard agarose electrophoresis, nuclei acids up to 50 kb may be separated. If Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis is used, the upper limit can be extended to 10 Mb. Polyacrylamide gels may separate nucleic acids that differ in length by only 1 nucleotide if their length is less than 500 bp (Sambrook et al., 1989).

Summary

Animal tissue culture is a biological technique in which a piece of tissue is taken from an animal specimen and cells from this tissue are grown and maintained in an in vitro or artificial environment (Harrison, 1907). Aim of cell / tissue culture is actually to make cells as happy in the in vitro conditions, as they are in their natural environment. The objective of this chapter is to highlight those principles and procedures that have particular relevance to the use of cell culture in tissue engineering.

Summary

The present era is witness of understanding the science of human diseases at molecular level. The advances of science in terms of Genomics, Proteomics, Metaboliomics, Lipidomics and bioinformatics have drawn an excellent pathway to discover more promising drugs. It’s still a challenging task to reduce the time line to discover new drug, which is approximately 10-15 years. A drug discovery program requires billions of dollars but without the promise of success. After screening of thousands of compounds only one becomes successful in clinical trials and reaches to the market. Although there are lot many ways to approach drug discovery, nature has gifted many interesting compounds to fight the diseases. On the other hand isolation of pure compounds from natural products like bacteria found in soil or different parts of plants is itself a challenging area. The modern fashion of natural product isolation is guided by bioactivity. Hence a feasible assay to access the bioactivity has got a great importance.

Summary

Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary areas of science and technology which refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme of control of matter is on the molecular scale that integrates material science and biology. Due to their advantages over non-biological systems, several research groups have explored the use of biological systems for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Among the different microbes used for the synthesis of nanoparticles, fungi are efficient candidates for fabrication of metal nanoparticles both intra-and extracellulary. The nanoparticles synthesized using fungi present good polydispersity, dimensions and stability. The potential applications of nanotechnology and nanoparticles in different fields have revolutionized the health care, textile and agricultural industries and  they are described in present chapter.

Abstract

Variously defined endophytes are highly diverse in plants in natural ecosystems, and most of them are symbiotic with of them are Asymptomatic presence of endophytic fungi in internal tissues on healthy host plants are able to play vital roles in physiology and biochemical processes. As a result of this interaction endophyte produces chemical substances having various applications. This chapter provides a brief review of certain grass and non-grass endophytes capable to extend beneficial impacts on host plants to sustain the unfavourable conditions of abiotic stresses. However, biotic stresses are also a matter of great concern, where endophytes can play important roles in combating the unfavourable situation. Endophytic fungi used in bio-control and other agriculture related sectors are also  highlighted in this review. Endophytic fungi producing volatile organic compounds reported from all over the world and their various applications find place in this article which has opened new frontiers of bioprospecting of endophytic fungi.

Abstract

Abiotic stresses lead to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants which are highly reactive and toxic and cause damage to proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and DNA which ultimately results in oxidative stress. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)-symbiosis can confer a greater degree of tolerance against drought stress in many cash crops. The significance of heat shock proteins (Hsps) and chaperones in abiotic stress responses in plants, and co-operation among their different classes and their interactions with other stress-induced components is well known. Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress adversely affecting plant growth and crop production worldwide. Phyto-mycoremediation utilizing AMF as plant inoculants is regarded as a promising strategy to heavy metal pollution remediation. Plants have stress specific adaptive responses as well as responses which protect the plants from more than one environmental stress. The potential of phytoremediation of contaminated soil can be enhanced by inoculating hyper-accumulator plants with mycorrhizal fungi most appropriate for the contaminated site.

Crops plants are broadly classified into two groups based on their mode of reproduction viz. sexually propagated and asexually propagated. In sexually propagated crops seeds are the primary propagules and it is produced by the fertilization of male and female gametes. Whereas, asexual reproduction or clonal reproduction covers all those modes of multiplication of plants where normal gamete formation and fertilization does not take place and vegetative propagules are the means of reproduction. Since sexual reproduction involves meiosis, segregation and recombination, the creation of variation is a continuous process which is inevitable in these crops. On the other hand, in asexual propagation progenies are identical to the parent clones and they are genetically similar without any variation and they reproduce via mitosis. The most important vegetatively propagated food crops are potato, sugar cane, cassava, sweet potato, yam, plantain/banana, and fruit trees. Other crops with asexual propagations are some ornamentals, grasses, and forages.

A. Salinity

Salinity is a predominant problem affecting crop productivity. Over 800 million hectares of land on earth are saline. This accounts for more than 6% of the total land mass on earth. Salinity is a global problem and is prevalent especially in the arid and semiarid regions, where leaching of salts is poor due to low rainfall or irrigation. Brine-affected soil occurs due to natural causes such as weathering and deposition of oceanic salts (eg. recently tsunami in India). In addition, human interference with the environment such as deforestation and/or desertification has resulted in the rising of water table, thus increasing the salt concentration in the root zone. This excess salinity poses a threat to sustainable crop production.

Crop varieties are domesticated since civilization, and their continued cultivation depends on continuous breeding programmes for insect, disease and other stress resistance. World wide, insects and their associated problems cause threat to crop production. Many crops suffer from insects, which may be in the form of direct damage by feeding or indirectly by the transmission of diseases by insects as vectors. Until now, chemical crop protection is seen as the major way to combat these problems. However, insects develop resistance to the insecticides very quickly. Apart from controlling pest insects, insecticides also affect beneficial insects, such as predators and parasitoids of the pest insect, pollinators, and harmless fauna, thus upsetting ecological balance results in many unwanted problems. Hence, the best strategy is to prevent the problems that occur. The most economical and environmental friendly way of controlling the insect pests of crops would be through host-plant resistance (HPR). Resistant plants help farmers to grow crops with minimal use of chemicals. This will lead to a reduction in the cost of production, thereby increasing the profit margin for farmers and thus importance of breeding for pest resistance is manifested.

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses IPR concepts in the light of Indian culture and issues emanating from enforcement of those concepts in developing countries such as India.

INTRODUCTION

The adage “Knowledge is wealth” suits the present era well than any other period. India is known for its innovative thoughts since ages. However, it never monopolized the knowledge it possessed. In India, the knowledge of a person is thought to be utilized for the benefit of the society as an obligation of the knowledge holder. Does this mindset of Universal humanity (Vasudevo Kudumbagam) and common good (Sarva Sugino Bavandu) would benefit us in the materialistic society? This paper is an attempt to answer this query.

There is only one type of scientific research and that is to solve a real problem or to understand the universe and provide a solution –either with the experiments or by putting a hypothesis. However, we have classified the research in various types as per our comfort. But for the employed researchers, it may be a matter of concern if they are working on time bound research schemes as their services may be co-terminus with the project and they may face the problem of un-employment, after termination of the scheme. According to the scholars’ activities and type of research being carried out in the country, we can discuss the subject under following topics.

Review of literature or consulting of literature is just beginning of a research project. The main intellectual work is to study the previous work meticulously and to draw conclusions regarding existing problems. This leads us to another intelligent part of the research i.e. planning of the research work. If you analyze what you are planning, it is only about materials to be employed and methodology of the research work (with planning of the work)- only these three parameters are under your control as results will be the outcome of these three facets while discussion will be how you consider your results in presence of previous research work. In fact, this statement of mine is more align to the sermon of “Shrimad Bhagwat Geeta” (5) where it is stated that man has control only on his actions (planning and conducting research) hence fulfill this duty without caring for the results-which in turn will depend on your analyzing the previous facts and how you have planned to solve the problem. Therefore, pay full attention on these three facts of the research.

Introduction

The metal particles in nanometer scale shows exciting optical and electronic characteristics when compared with respective bulk metals. Because of the inherent electronic properties of the metal and metal oxide nanoparticles these nanostructure materials are applied in various disciplines in recent days. Mostly these nanoparticles can be synthesized either top down or bottom up approaches. The conversion of bigger size particle or matter into tiny particles is called top down approach where as smaller particles or atoms joined together forming particles in regular shape within nanometer scale dimension is called bottom up approach. The formation of nanoparticles by chemical reduction is an example for the later one and the reduction size with the help of mechanical crusing leads to the formation of fine nanoparticles is named as top down approach. Mostly nanoparticles can be synthesized by chemical method because of its easiness to synthesis particles with uniform size and high purity.

Nano-materials are to be extensively studied and characterized prior to their application in material science, biological science, electrical and electronics. In addition to the basic physical properties of the nano-materials, other characteristics such as paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, supermagnetism, optical properties, quantum size effects and electrical properties have to be studied. With a view to provide the fundamental information on these aspects this chapter is dedicated.

Background

The demand for development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies is increasing, since many problems have appeared with the use of synthetic pesticides and semiochemicals – informative molecules used in insect-insect or plant-insect interaction – are being considered as an alternative or complementary approach within IPM strategies. (Heuskin et al., 2011). Indeed, such communication molecules like para-pheromones do not present any related adverse effects on beneficial organisms in the ecosystem.

For fruitflies management, several eco-friendly control options  have been developed and recommended across the globe which  include trapping, safe disposal of infested fruits, repulsion with botanical products and physical covering of the developing fruits, besides area-based control through mass trapping and sterile-insect technique. Nevertheless, the use of para-pheromones-based lures in trap systems appears to have greater potential to be among the more widely adopted practices (Verghese, 2009).

Summary
 
ISFM has been defined in a number of ways – but here an emphasis is placed on finding a way to explain ISFM that makes sense to the intended audience. When combined with general good agronomic practices the combination of improved planting material, chemical fertilizer along with the addition of organic mater, increases productivity.  There are, however, constraints at the smallholder level – in terms of access to farm inputs e.g. seed, credit &labour.This section looks at short and long-term approaches to the application of basic nutrients. The issues of recycling nutrients and the impact of erosion on the nutrients in the soil. There is a review of the pros and cons of ISFM – it does increase yield (4 -6 times more production).  There is a brief outline of the role of cover crops, mulching and conservation tillage as forms of agriculture that can help reduce soil erosion.The section locates the idea of ISFM along side integrated pest management and explores the impact of biological control agents in Ghana and the role of micro-organisms.

Summary

Fertilizers are materials when applied replenish lost soil nutrients on farmer’s field. Without the use of fertilizers farmers would find it extremely difficult to increase their production to meet the ever-growing mouths. The purpose of this session is to discuss what a fertilizer is, and the different terminologies used in fertilizer technology.

Abstract

Synonymous and non-synonymous substitution result in isomerization and deformity in protein structure. Both play more or less important role in evolution. Interestingly, cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are composed of proteins which are coded by codons by mRNA translation. These proteins are categorized into three groups e.g., C-PC, C-PE and C-APC having a and b subunits. The skeleton and arrangement of amino acids in subunits can provide structural and functional integrity of PBPs as well as GC₃ associated substitution of synonymous and non-synonymous codons.

Abstract

This study was conducted to examine the response of photosynthetic pigments to heavy metal stress in a short-term toxicity test using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC pigment analysis of Euglena has resulted in 5 separated pigments: chlorophylls a, b and three carotenoids, which are 9-cis-neoxanthin, diadinoxanthin and b-carotene.

During the last thirty years, there has been a growing appreciation of the impor tance of VAM fungi in improving the plant growth and yield. They have been extensively studied also in India. Considering the potential importance of these organisms in the recovery of disturbed sites and their possible use in land reclamation, researches regarding their relationship to ecosystem recovery have now been initiated also in India.

Large areas of land in the country called wastelands are degraded and lying unutilized due to various constraints. Part of it called culturable, has the potential for the development of vegetation cover. On the other hand, part of it called unculturable, has no potential for the development of vegetation cover. In addition to these natural wastelands, there are large tracts of wastelands created due to human activities such as mining, deforestation etc. Such wastelands are also culturable and a vegetation cover can be developed on them after removing the constraints with some efforts.

Feeds and feeding of dairy animals are arguably the most important part of the dairy farm management. And it is not only what we feed that is important but how we manage our feeding is equally as critical. What we feed today not only determines the animal’s milk production but also influences their entire lactation cycle that follows. Dairy animal feeding with balanced ration influences health status, reproductive, productive performance and better economic return in organic environment, all of which are critical to a profitable and sustainable dairy business as well as welfare of the dairy farmers. Feed costs currently account for around 45 percent of total milk price on average, with concentrates representing around 35 percent and forages around 10 percent.

Vegetables are grown on a limited scale in homesteads for family use and cultivated in an extensive scale for marketing.  Depending on the purpose for which they are developed, vegetable gardens are classified into different types, viz., kitchen garden or nutrition garden, market garden, truck garden, garden for processing, garden for seed production and vegetable forcing or protected cultivation.

Radish, turnip, carrot and beet root are major root crops grown in the country.  In addition, root crops like rutabaga, parsnip, salsify, chervil and celeriac are grown in a limited scale in different areas. Though the crops belong to different families, their cultural requirements are uniform.  Common features of root crops like radish, turnip, carrot and beet root are:

As per the projection of International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, there is likelihood of shortfall of 41% in food production in India by 2020 and need to produce 300mt of food by 2020. India is the seventh largest country in the world with a population of more than 1.03 billion and with 1.93 population growth rate. To overcome such problems we have to go for horizontal or vertical increase in production. As the cultivable area and water resources are limited to bring under cropping, except by way of increasing the cropping intensity/cropping system, horizontal increase has little scope. While the vertical increase in production has tremendous scope with better value added varieties and farmer friendly sustainable management and production technologies.

In enhancing  the food production there appears to be two solutions, viz., horizontal or vertical increase in production.  In the vertical expansion of production varieties are important. High yielding, high starch and value added varieties suitable to each region/ cropping system play vital role in enhancing vertical production.  Therefore varieties especially value added consumer preferred ecologically adaptable ones hold the key and is very much true in tuber and root crops which have a significant role in supplementing the food and nutritional requirement in rural and semi urban population of India.

The major tuber crops cultivated in tropical countries are: cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), yams (Dioscorea sp.), aroids (Amorphophallus, Alocasia, Xanthosoma, Colocasia ), Canna edulis, arrowroot, Chinese potato, winged bean and yam bean. In addition to this, there are a number of under exploited and under utilized tuber crops grown as wild cultivars having medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Processing and utilization of tuber crops as food are traditional with both primitive as well as modern equipments being in use (Nanda and Kurup, 1994). One of the oldest traditional processing tools is a stone pounder for making poi from taro in Hawaii.

Abstract

Currently, computers are changing from single, isolated devices into entry points to a worldwide network of information exchange and business transactions called the World Wide Web (WWW).Current web contains billions of documents and has many administrative problems and limitations; in addition to that the web content is still accessible only to humans. For this reason, support in data, information, and knowledge exchange has become a key issue in current computer technology. The success of the WWW has made it increasingly difficult to find, access, present, and maintain the information required by a wide variety of users. In response to this problem, many new research initiatives and commercial enterprises have been set up to enrich available information with machine processable semantics.

Abstract

Protein-protein interactions play a major role in most cellular processes. Many essential cellular processes such as signal transduction, transport, cellular motion and most regulatory mechanisms are mediated by protein-protein interactions. The study of protein-protein interactions is of great importance in determining the biological function and impact of proteins. The experimental techniques remain expensive, time-consuming and labor-intense. Computational methods play an important role at all the stages of determining protein-protein interactions. In this chapter, we describe the different types of protein-protein interactions, computational methods, currently available databases and tools, protein-protein docking and as well as protein-protein interactions as drug targets.

Introduction

“Quality” of fish refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness or degree of spoilage which the fish has undergone or involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. “Quality’’ is a term which must be defined in association with an individual product type. For example, it is often thought that the best quality fish is the one which is consumed within the first few hours of post mortem. However, very fresh fish which are in rigor mortis will be of hard texture and difficult to fillet and skin are often unsuitable for smoking or drying. Thus, for the processor, a slightly older fish which have passed through the rigor process are more desirable.

A tumor is said to be an abnormal growth of cells to form a lump or mass of transformed cells. This growth occurs due to loss of regulatory control of cell division. The majority of cells and organs have a balance between cell renewal and cell death. A cell has a particular life span;when it dies a new cell is generated. In normal condition, this system is regulated through cell cycle and cell division but at the time of any abnormality this growth mechanism is totally disturbed and failed. These cells give rise to clone of the cells and eventually produce tumor.

The well-being of a person depends on his immune system. Any deficiency in any component of immune system may lead to defects in the normal functioning of his body and makes him more susceptible to diseases. The immunodeficiency may be either in specific components (B cells or T cells) or nonspecific component (phagocytes and complement) of the immune system.

One of the characteristics of the immune system is to recognize and discriminate self from the non-self antigens.  But, sometimes, there is a failure to discriminate between self and non-self antigens in the body and an autoimmune response occurs. Body starts producing antibodies against its own cells/antigens. These antibodies are called autoantibodies and this state is called autoimmunity.