eChapters

Abstract: Lilium is one of the six major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Species are native to diverse habitat within Northern hemisphere. Liliums have a lengthy association with various world cultures. As a result, flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop which has enabled its establishment in the top ten cuts, potted flowering and garden crops worldwide. The crop arises from multiple species. Research has focused on development of late flowering genotypes with forcing ability, improvement of flower form/ shape, pollenless cultivars, disease resistance and floral longevity. The limited genetic information and trait heritability have been established for this crop. Wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Breeders have created complex hybrids such as LA, OT, OTO, FA, FAA, FO and OA hybrids through in vitro embryo rescue techniques. Molecular biology is being used to engineer Lilium against LSV and TBV. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists including short forcing time, late flowering in Asiatic lilies, enhanced shelf life, genetically controlled height, rapid propagation and cultivars requiring no vernalization for flowering.

Abstract: Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Unfruitfulness, cross incompatibility, pollen and seed sterility, delicate flower parts, peak and active night flowering, endosperm antagonism often pose significant challenge to breeders. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Phenotypic traits requiring future improvement include recurrent flowering for fresh flower market, high concrete recovery, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transform this crop.

Abstract: Hollyhocks are seed propagated garden annuals with numerous hybrid phenotypes, series (single and bicoloured Halo series), Spotlight, Carter’s Double, Double Triumph, Giant Double Powder Puff, Halo Bush (tricoloured), Halo Mixed (eight colours) and cultivars are available in the world market. Unusual plant height, delayed flowering compared to other winter annuals handicap its popularity. While little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Gene pool of hollyhock exhibits great diversity. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature (2 feet height), compact growth, double and large flowered inflorescence, precocious flowering and resistance to leaf rust disease.

Abstract: Ornamental hibiscus (shoe flower) is native of Asia, probably China, but now conspicuous in all warm countries. Hibiscus is cross pollinating, evergreen shrub and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. High polyploid constitution of species predominant vegetative reproduction and rampant hybridization irrespective of chromosome number are features of this crop. The important traits for continuous crop improvement include plant with good growth habit, floriferous nature, desirable flower colour, size, shape and good keeping quality. A variety of flower forms, flower colours and growth forms exist. Very little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Use of somatic hybridization, mutation breeding and marker assisted breeding are discussed. The continuous use of these techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

Abstract: Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘sword lily’ is native to South Africa. Most members of genus are heteroploids. It has pivotal place as cut flower with novel phenotypes (Grandifloras, Primulinus, Butterfly, Miniature, Face Ups, Orchideola), cultivars available on world market. Modern types are evolved through conventional breeding and very few through mutation breeding. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of fragrant, winter hardy and disease resistant cultivars. Breeders have reported close linkages in variety of traits. Cross pollinating nature coupled with high heterozygosity makes heredity transmission unpredictable. Future crop idiotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Gerberas are popular seed and vegetatively propagated flower crop with numerous phenotypes, series and cultivars available on the world market. Crop improvement is currently focused on bicoloured mini gerbera, semi-double and spider type forms, and hybrid cultivars with expanded colour range to boost productivity and profitability. Application of genetic engineering techniques and tools are aiding in modern gerbera breeding. The need for new cultivars remains strong as production system become more specialized and new markets develop. Breeding objectives with high priority include cut flower cultivars highly resistant to diseases, tolerant to low temperature, and floral longevity.

Abstract: Pelargonium (syn. Geranium), has become mainstay in temperate landscapes because of its ease of production and cultivation, long lasting bloom, range of plant habits and diversity of uses (perfumery, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries). Confusion exists about nomenclature and taxonomic revision has attempted. Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly trailing growth habit, reduced plant size, compact form, manipulation of flowers (size, number, coloration, longevity, timing) and disease resistant cultivars. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits, molecular genetic techniques and biotechnological applications are valuable tools aiding modern pelargonium breeders. The need of new cultivars remains strong as divergence among pelargonium market types increases, production system becomes more specialized and new market develops.

Abstract: Gaillardia, commonly known as ‘Blanket flower’, is excellent for cut flower, mixed borders, edging and bedding plants. Huge quantum of variability exists in this crop in India. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars and open pollinated varieties available in the market. Biparental inbreeding depression has complicated the progress of crop development. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include, plant architecture, flower morphology (colour, size, quality), attractive seed heads and drought stress.

Abtract: Dahlia, tuberous flowering plant, is valued for potted flowering and garden crop worldwide. The genus contains ~85 species native to Mexico, central America and Columbia. Numerous phenotypes (star/ anemone/ paeony/ decorative/ pompon/ cactus/ water lily flowered) and cultivars (giant/ large/ small/ miniature/ ball/ pompon/ mignon single) are available on world market. Cultivated dahlias are allotetraploids with great diversity in flower colour/ forms. Limited genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Precise elucidation of the genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled in the creation of new flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression discussed. Research succeeded in mutation breeding and interspecific hybridization and colourful dahlia varieties have been developed by individual enthusiasts, nurserymen and flower breeders. Complicated genetics, heterozygosity often pose significant challenges to breeders. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Crossandra, traditional flower crop of India, produce beautiful flowers in remarkable range of colours of almost all the year. Flowers are ideal for garland making and hair adornments. Only few species are cultivated across the world. Improvement is focused on drought tolerant ornamental types for landscape/ container use, better keeping quality, heavy yield and vivid range of flower colours, long spikes, earliness and big flower size. Breeders have created mutant cultivars and F₁ hybrids having valuable traits. Lack of fragrance and meager seed set require biotechnological interventions.

Abstract: Cosmos, popular as garden annual in many parts of the world, has its origin in Mexico. Cosmos is cross pollinating and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Self and cross incompatibility, self and intersterility, limited fertility, reproductive barriers and seed sterility often pose significant challenges to breeders. The breeding objectives include development of suitable indoor plants, less susceptible to powdery mildew and more tolerant to abiotic stress. The biotechnological skills can be attempted in breeding.

Keywords: Breeding, self incompatibility, sterility, hybrid seed production.

Abstract: Chrysanthemum, commonly known as Queen of East, is perhaps oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world in a wide range of floricultural product including potted plants, cut flowers and garden plant. Vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting bloom, ease of production and cultivation all the year round, range of plant habits from pot mums to tall shrub, hardy nature, and versatility of use make this a versatile floriculture crop, wide range of polyploidy level (diploid to decaploid) is found in different cultivars and are almost exclusively asexually propagated. The crop arises from multiple species, its allopolyploid nature has complicated progress in crop development due to inbreeding depression, genetic load and aneuploidy. Precise genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Currently, numerous varieties have been developed through complex interspecific crosses among elemental species, open pollination, indiscriminate Intervarietal hybridization, spontaneous and induced mutation, selection, and management of chimera. Number of traits targeted for genetic intervention have been presented and discussed. Crop idiotypes for product classes prescribe numerous traits for incorpotion by flower breeders and geneticists including compact framework to withstand bloom for pot mums, long lasting bloom colour with enhanced shelf life for cut flower and sweet scented blooms with extended blooming season for garland use.

Abstract: The most popular ornamental monotypic species chinensis, is an important annual flower, used commercially as cut flower for interior decoration, bedding, potting and landscape purpose. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars from this species on the market. The influence of breeding methods on the selection criterion and selection procedures is discussed. Information on variability and correlation is included. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering (colour, size, timings), attractive flower heads, extended bloom time, horizontal placement of flowers, floral longevity, earliness, healthy foliage or other morphological traits. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop for large scale cultivation.

Abstract: Carnation, is one of the commercial flower crops of the world. There are many forms of carnations, which are excellent for cut flowers, bedding pots, edging and rock gardens. The history of crop improvement and development is highlighted. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly standards (Sims), sprays, midis, annual, picotees, perpetual, chabaud, malmaison, multiflora, microcarnations, etc. Continuous breeding and improvement of carnation focus on floral fragrance, floral doubleness, dwarf stature, high growth rate, floral colour, reduced calyx splitting, floral longevity and disease resistance. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern carnation breeders. Numerous genes have been identified and being used to create transformants. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, mutation and polyploid breeding are discussed. Poor pollen production, inbreeding depression, linkage between traits, limited gene pool, inadequate seed production, reproductive barriers often pose significant challenges to breeders. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists, including straight stem, symmetrical flower shape/ form, early/ uniform flowering with high productivity, enhanced shelf life and resistance to physiological disorders and various diseases.

Abstract: Zantedeschia, commonly known as calla lily, is one of the popular ornamental plant in the world. Zantedeschia are commonly associated with the New Zealand, even though they are native to South Africa. The vegetatively propagated crop is currently the most important rhizomatous geophyte in the world. Most cultivars are grown for cut flowers, variegated or spotted foliage for floral arrangements, flowering potted plants and landscaping. Continued breeding and improvement of Zantedeschia focused on disease resistance, improved floral longevity, novel spathe colour, better bloom quality, longer stems, more flowers/ rhizome and determinate growth habit. Intersectional/interspecific hybridization is hampered by post fertilization barriers, hybrid breakdown, albino hybrid embryo and F₁ sterility. Crossing barriers have been overcome with the use of in vitro embryo rescue. Haploidization and molecular techniques are being used to create homozygous plant and marker assisted selection, respectively.

Abstract: Bougainvilleas are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. The considerable diversity exists in bougainvillea species for leaf shape, degree of hairiness, bract colour, spine shape and blooming. These attributes have enabled the ornamental bougainvillea to be used as pot plants, hedge, pergola, standard and bonsai for display. Currently, there are many intra and interspecific hybrid cultivars and numerous mutations from numerous species in the market. Limited fertility, heterozygous nature, strong self incompatibility and seed sterility often pose significant challenge to breeders. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include; plant architecture, flower timing, colour diversity, multibracts and multicolour in single variety, environmental adaptation to stressful condition (cold tolerance, heat tolerance, drought tolerance, etc.).

Abstract: Impatiens are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding plants with numerous series (Shadeglow, Firefly, Peach Ice, Circus, Hawaii, Pixie, Show Topper, Elfin, Shady Lady, Fanciful, Fantasia, Fiesta, Futura, Jewel, Minarette, etc.) and F₁ hybrid cultivars available on world market. The history of balsam development as a crop is highlighted. Continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Continuous breeding and improvement of balsam focus on flower colour/ size/ pattern, double flowers, plant growth habit/ branching and disease resistance. Important traits for both production and landscape use include flower colour/ size and bloom time, larger flowers, resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and other valuable traits. Results achieved through interspecific hybridization and polyploid breeding are discussed. The chapter concludes with future prospective for research and breeding in the genus.

Abstract: Anthurium, popularly known as aristocrat of the plant world, is admired for its unique ornamental value. The Netherlands remains the world’s largest grower and primary source of new colours and cultivars to the international market; while Hawaii remains the epicenter for published research on various aspects of anthurium genetics, propagation and improvement. Flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop, which has enabled its establishment as pot plant and cut flower industry. Continued breeding and improvement of anthurium focus on floral fragrance, disease resistance, new flower shapes/ colours and improved floral longevity. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, multiway crosses, polyploidy breeding and molecular genetic techniques have been discussed. Cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. Anthuriums are cross pollinating perennial shrubs and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Long life cycle of plants, slow seed formation and maturation, slow suckering often pose significant challenges to breeders. Biotechnology has created a new horizon in anthurium breeding. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern anthurium breeders. Future crop idiotype is proposed to continue transformation of this monocot aroid crop during the next millennium.

Hippeastrums, commonly known as Royal Dutch amaryllis/ Trumplet lily/ Belladonna lily, are bulbous ornamentals grown around the world for cut flowers, potted plants, window gardens and floral arrangements. The numerous hybrid phenotypes (miniature, orchid flowering, imbricated/ reginae, long trumpet/ belladonna type, etc.) are available in the world market. The history of its development and new trends of breeding are described as an aid for continued crop development. Tissue banks of cultivars are genetic evolutionary race history have been charted out for future improvement. Most cultivars are diploids and tetraploids cross incompatibility, sterility, reproductive barriers, self incompatibility often pose significant challenges to breeders. Little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. The use of intra and interspecific hybridization, breeding for specific traits, polyploidy and mutation breeding are presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in the future.

An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

Plants are unique from other marketed products due to their complex nomenclature, ease of propagation and the many levels of distribution and promotion involved in their marketing. The protection is required for a plant cultivar needs to be considered in relation to all of these factors in order to be correctly implemented and maintained. Breeding and commercialization of new ornamental plant varieties is an economically important activity both for the industry and the well being of our society. Breeding or developing a new variety requires a long time. In horticultural crops, it takes 3-10 years from initial crossing of parent cultivars to develop a commercial variety. It is important to encourage development of new variety by providing incentives such as Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) over exclusive production and marketing of seed of an improved variety. When the new cultivar is introduced and commercialized, plant breeders finally begin to get paid for their years of hard work in the form of royalties. Legal protection for new plant varieties provides the means by which companies, institutions, and independent plant breeders can receive a return on their investments of time and money as well as justify their involvement in research and new plant development. In addition, legal protection enables plant breeders to be recognized for their craft and skill and encourages plant breeding as a profession. Plant variety protection provides an incentive for continued breeding and to ensure the availability of new varieties that meet future demands and keep the industry thriving.

Like in other crops, international research centres can contribute substantially towards solving the problems that limit ornamentals production because several research constraints are global in nature and need the research support by well staffed and adequately equipped research centres, which can make the work of national research programmes more efficient and accelerate the development of solutions. These international research centres can build a critical mass of scientists that is very important for effective research. It has almost established that successful research in individual crops has usually required the team efforts of specialists working in a range of disciplines like genetics, breeding, agronomy, physiology, pathology, entomology, economics, soils, statistics and chemistry, etc. These research centres are required to 1) Serve as catalyst for change 2) Collect, evaluate, maintain and utilize germplasm, 3) Generate and disseminate information 4) Provide training 5) Stimulate the formation of critical mass for research and 6) Assist national programmes achieving desired goals faster and more efficiently.

Growing of flowers in gardens was patronized by the rulers themselves earlier. Commercial production of flowers gathered momentum globally, efforts to breed new varieties of flower crops intensified in the 70s, and 80s primarily due to their high commercial value. With the advent of WTO followed by the Plant Breeder’s Rights, the commercial breeding efforts got intensified further. Domestication, introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, and polyploidy breeding have played a major role in the evolution of the present day ornamental plants.

4.1 Brief historical account

Flowers have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world. Numerous cultures have incorporated flowers into their everyday lives expressions of beauty and art. Flowers are used to celebrate major life events and to decorate graves, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them into gardens for domestication. They were used for their floral and other values. According to Theophrastus (372-287 BC), carnation was grown in Greece during 300 BC. It was used for medicinal purpose in France. Romans prepared dye from calendula flowers. During early days, Bells of Ireland (Moluccella laevis) was used as a vegetable, but now after much improvement, it is used as a cut flower. The rose, which is an important flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Orchids were known for their attractive appearance and fragrance in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Man’s interest in cultivating and growing orchids developed during the 19^th century in Europe. Chrysanthemum is the one of the oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 BC. Most of garden flowers were introduced into Europe from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th century. Ornamental annuals constitute an amazing group of plants widely grown in the parks and gardens in different seasons. The enchanting beauty of colour, shades, form and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for every garden. No other plant can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by riot of colours.

Flowers are classified into three groups- self pollinated, often cross pollinated and cross pollinated- based on the extent of cross pollination which ranges from nil to 5 percent in self pollinated, 5-12 percent in often cross-pollinated and more than 12 percent in cross pollinated flowers. The information on extent of cross pollination is important to decide appropriate breeding methods to develop and improve the crop, to maintain genetic purity of seed, and to decide safe isolation distances from varieties, related species and related genera of the crop.

3.1 Autogamous (Self pollinated) flowers

When the egg in a flower gets fertilized by its own pollen, it is, referred to as autogamy. In statistical terms, it is, explained as the probability that egg gets fertilized by its own pollen as one. The coefficient of inbreeding which also measures the probability of selfing is also one in such crops. The genetic structure of autogamous flower is homozygous. The reasons for autogamy in flowers are essentially homomorphism, cleistogamy and chasmogamy. Homomorphism refers to uniformity in placement of essential floral parts, androecium and gynoecium e.g. Aster (double flowered), Balsam, Bells of Ireland, Carnation, Clianthus, Benghal dayflower (Commelina benghalensis), Gypsophila, Lupine, Salvia, Saponaria, Sweet pea and Sweet William. In autogamous ornamental crops, cross pollination in nature is almost negligible. Autogamous pollination may be of three types viz., autogamous selfing: refers to origin of pollen from anthers of the same flower; geitonogamous selfing refers to pollen from different flower on the same shoot or genet, and xenogamy, crossing refers to pollen from different flower on a shoot from another genet.

The concept of Centers of Origin given by Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov (1935) is based on his studies of vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad. According to him, crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary Centers of Origin; but in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate their, such areas are known as secondary Centers of Origin of these species. He identified 8 primary centers (Chinese, Indian, Inner Asiatic, Asia Minor, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, South Mexico, Central America and South America Andes Center) and three sub-centers (Indo-Malayan, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan sub-center) of origin for crop plants. Basilevskaya (1960) first investigated the geographical origin of garden plants. Coats (1968) first stressed out the ornamental herbs whereas Hui-Lin-Li (1974) wrote about the introduction of woody plants. According to Tay (2007) survey of thirty common flowers and their related species show a similar pattern of concentrated occurrence of species in certain geographic regions.

Exploration and exploitation of gene centers need to be proceed with the systematic cooperation of taxonomists, geneticists and plant pathologists. The 17 centers of origin identified for different flower and ornamental crops are given (Table 2.1)

These centers coincide to a significant extent with the regions of the Conservation International’s Biodiversity Hot spots in the world. No one single country is self sufficient in all the germplasm of flowers. The centers of origin of ancient flowers from China and Turkey coincide with the Vavilov’s food crop centers of origin. Domestication of food crops might also lead to the domestication of those flowers. Flowers were part of crop weed complex from the beginning and those with beautiful flowers would have been selected for domestication.

Flowers, the aesthetic creations of God over the earth and symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. Flowers have been associated with progress and prosperity from ancient times. They have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world, and are integral part of traditional, religious ceremonies and rituals and no function, from birth till death, are complete without the use of flowers. They play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. Sensory elements of flowers like fragrance, colour, texture, softness, freshness, etc. influence human psyche in different manner.

From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry generating both income as well as employment. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide due to increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” to celebrate major life events, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient. Estimate of the annual consumption of commercially grown flower vary by source and range from 40-60 billion USD. Global exports over the last few years have grown by more than 10 per cent annually. Flower growing and its value addition viz., essential oils, natural dye extraction, dry flowers, floral ornaments, bouquets and artistic garlands, etc. is associated with variety of employment generation activities. Besides the traditional centres of production, new production centres are also developing.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them to gardens for decoration; mainly used for their floral and other values. The rose, which is an high value flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Carnation was grown in Greece during 300 B. C. Orchids were known for their attractive flowers and scent in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Chrysanthemum is the another oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 B. C. At the time of Confucius, only a wild single-flowered type was known in chrysanthemum. Later on many new varieties arose and in Japan, the flower reached a high stage of development and popularity. From Japan, the chrysanthemum spread to Europe. Now some of the best known modern varieties have been developed in Europe, America, and Australia. Lotus, an aquatic ornamental flower, is native to India and is associated with religion, art and culture of Indian civilization. Eloquent references to the aesthetics of these ornaments are available from ancient literature and sculptures. Most of the garden flowers were introduced into Europe for cultivation from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th centuries.

Abstract

Entrepreneurs take responsibility of their ‘business’ tad differently than their counterpart, the traditional businessman. A businessman walks on the pre-defined route whereas the entrepreneur creates his own alley-way, which if successful, becomes the rulebook for that trade. Lately, ecological issues have taken centre-stage as climatic changes have endangered the sustainable growth of the business. A new breed of entrepreneurs, alias ecopreneurs, functions in this ‘new’ space and endeavour to frame an innovative business landscape. Ecopreneurs possess singular focus on the safe-keep of the ecology. But in order to sustain the efforts of businesses in ecology, it is imperative that they remain economically viable too. Thus, ecopreneurial process is not only about fulfilling the business’ responsibility towards ecology, but also about the marketability of the product or service. In order to evaluate the ecopreneurial process, organic farming is considered as a case. In this paper, selected organic farms are analysed in an environment - market continuum, developed particularly for this study which is in tandem with the works of Schaltegger (2002) and Blake and Mouton (1964).The study reveals inadequacy of market performance of the individual and farm level ecopreneurs in the state of West Bengal, in spite of their strong inclination towards care for the environment.

Abstract

Agricultural development in India provides support to a large section of farmers who operate on small holdings and have very limited risk bearing capacity. Farmers are often exposed to natural vagaries, which adversely affect their agricultural production and farm income. Moreover, there is huge financial exclusion in rural sector of the nation. If there is a crop failure, farmers are crushed under the burden of debt. Farmers seek to avoid risk in terms of various managerial and institutional mechanisms. But it is widely believed that ‘Crop Insurance’ is the only institutional mechanism available against production risk in farming. Unfortunately, penetration of crop insurance schemes in India has been low in terms of the area of land insured and the number of farmers covered. There are the problems of low risk awareness and lack of insurance culture among the farmers. In this backdrop, the paper documents the findings of a survey of 140 farmers, which was taken up in some selected villages of North 24 Parganas district of West Bengal. The study shows that likelihood of this awareness increases with increase in landholding size, education level, borrowing history and social participation of the farmers, whereas it decreases with the non-farm income and livestock of the farmers. The author proposes measures to promote and spread awareness of crop insurance among the farmers as a risk mitigation tool in farming, which will increase farm production and stabilize the fluctuation in farm income. The study provides valuable policy measures to the government in better designing of their crop insurance products and will also help the private agro-insurance business, which is recently taking off in the country.

Abstract

This paper studies the role and status of Indian Agricultural Market Intelligence System (IAMIS) in improving the economic returns of agri-sector in India. Marketing intelligence makes agricultural marketers, including agri-entrepreneurs, aware and updated and reduces risk in decision making. India produced 275.112 million tonnes of food grains in 2016-17 and the projected requirement is 311million tonnes in 2030. Income of farmers has increased at a CAGR of 10.61% and number of farmers has declined at a CAGR of -0.25% from 1993-94 to 2014-15. Acreage remains stagnant. Given this background, to exploit full potential of agricultural production, market intelligence has a great role. The DES and Department of Food with their 435 market information systems (MIS) units transmit daily information through public media. The essential prerequisite of ensuring farmers’income is that they need credible information about “likely price situation”. Agriculture Marketing Intelligence System (AMIS, 2011) has emerged with the aim to provide services in agriculture and allied sectors. ICAR (1991) took initiatives under World Bank to assist National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) and Export Market Intelligence Cell (EMIC) was set up in Tamil Nadu with ten State Agricultural Universities. This paper uses globally available price forecasting models (ARIMA, GARCH, etc.)on 20 crops to provide an idea of the existing status and policies in agricultural market intelligence.

Abstract

India is the second largest food producing country in the world. Food processing is one of the key industries in the country and a sector that has direct linkage between agriculture and industry. Being the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables along with its strategic geographic location and proximity to food importing nations, India is in an advantageous position in terms of exporting processed food. As per estimates, Indian food processing sector stood at USD258 billion in the financial year 2015. The growth and development of this industry have direct impact on the Indian economy. The aim of the present study is to discuss about the growth of the food processing industry, analyse its strengths and weaknesses and generate possibilities of entrepreneurial development towards the expansion of the sector. This study has been a secondary data analysis based on data collected from journals, magazines, web searches and reports from various government and private agencies.

The study has identified the main drivers aiding to the growth of the sector. It includes strong domestic demand, rising export opportunities; supply side advantages for exporters due to rising global demand and strong policy support from the Government. On the other hand, fragmented market, infrastructure support, namely cold chain, innovation and skill development are the major hurdles that have to be overcome. This article makes an attempt to explore entrepreneurial opportunities and few areas where new business could be initiated. The entrepreneurial opportunities highlighted in this paper are based on Drucker’s opportunity construct that entrepreneurs have an eye more for possibilities created by change than the problems.

Abstract

Out of 1.37 billion populationof India 67 % lives in rural areas whose major source of income is agriculture and allied activities (World Population Review, 2019). In simple words, the livelihood of this vast majority is closely related to rural enterprises. Fostering rural entrepreneurship may be affected by several issues, infrastructure being one of them. This paper attempts to examine the relationship between infrastructure investment by the state and rural entrepreneurship in India, with ‘Gross Fixed Capital Formation’ and ‘Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing, Value Added’ considered as proxy variables. Time series econometrics is compiled with the data collected from World Bank Database for the period of 1961-2017. The study has established evidence in support of greater investment in infrastructure enhancing rural entrepreneurial opportunities in India.

Abstract

Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economic development and has experienced immense growth in the past few decades. Agriculture not only involves the participation of male workers but also experiences active participation of all family members, as well. Women, as part of the family, take up agricultural activities as an extension to their household chores. The Government and voluntary agencies have also recognised the need for women in the farming community to become self-reliant and active participants in the agricultural sector. Increasing awareness and educating themselves with the passage of time, farmers have made themselves aware of new techniques of farming and growing and established themselves as agricultural entrepreneurs in the long run. Many initiatives supporting women entrepreneurs and creating a supportive ecosystem for women to become agricultural entrepreneurs have been initiated by the state. The case of Anita Devi popularly known as the Mushroom Lady of Bihar has been taken up in this paper to substantiate with evidence how government initiatives have helped her gain success and grow as an agricultural entrepreneur. This study aims at disseminating how such initiatives help in creating an ecosystem that motivates agricultural entrepreneurs in general and women in particular.

Abstract

This paper is rooted in the issue of the failure of Green Revolution which was intended to achieve self-sufficiency in the agriculturally dominant country of India, following its independence. However five decades later, the current focus of the country is on engaging in a sustainable and economically feasible agricultural practice using principles of agro ecology. This paper tries to explore the potential of application of organic farming in a vast country like India. The author posits that organic farming can help India reverse the damage caused by Green Revolution by allowing for natural methods of agriculture rather than a severely mechanical form. This paper focuses on the modern concept of organic farming combining tradition, science and innovation, and the debatable issues surrounding organic farming particularly dealing with its economic feasibility and sustainability prospects. It is acknowledged that for the successful implementation of organic farming there has to be appropriate matching of the supply and demands the organic products. However, there is a need to address the challenge of adoption of organic farming in a diverse country like India because of its huge variance in education, income, living standards and health of the existing and potential consumers. The prospect of organic farming is discussed from the perspective of consumer awareness and state initiatives, in this paper.

Abstract

The agriculture and allied sector provide livelihood for 58% of India’s population. A large population and rising disposable incomes are key growth drivers. Growing external demand has increased its contribution to exports. The demand for processed food has also led to increasing requirements for agricultural inputs, hybrid seeds, machinery and fertilizers. Investment opportunities in storage infrastructure and agrochemicals also present immense opportunities. Organised retail has made India attractive for multinationals. The industry has a combination of multiple organisational forms, like associations, co-operatives, government (departmental) undertakings, foreign entities, trusts and companies, private and public. Unlisted companies encompass a vast range (private limited companies, family business, group-owned firms, and joint ventures are major actors.) The form and complexity of business ownership highlights Corporate Governance (CG) debate. Given this background, our objective is to understand the CG characteristics of unlisted agricultural and allied companies operating in India, the driving forces for improving CG practices, and the need for a policy framework in supporting good CG. We propose to examine the extent of control in the various types of entities and explore the mechanisms that contribute to the development of an efficient CG framework. Using data from the Prowess database, on 2,879 firms, from 2012-2013 to 2016-17, we analysed how CG problems are caused and how it can be alleviated. The results provide stakeholders and agri entrepreneurs with an overview of the policy and managerial issues that arise in the debate on CG of companies in this key sector. Finally, we conclude how the unlisted companies are likely to stimulate growth and development if CG mechanisms are enhanced.

Abstract

Trade Related Agreements on Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) widely affects the agricultural sector which is largely unorganised in India. At the same time this sector remains the bread winner for majority of the population of the country. The Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) affect the extensive and intensive margins in agricultural trade. This paper draws attention of enterprises in the field of agricultural biotechnology which has genetic modification (GM) as one of its core activity. GM is of benefit in terms of value additive features but also of great concern for the community in conservation of biodiversity. Food & Agricultural Organisation (FAO), being aware of the pitfalls of implementing IPRs in agriculture, constituted an expert panel to study the issues pertaining to the sector. They came up with very clear directives to the FAO on the course of action. This paper aims to focus on this area to identify the micro-level dynamics of IPRs in agriculture and its effects on the rural enterprises in India. The impact of IPRs and its ramifications, the issues of agricultural productivity and its future trajectory, are to be understood from the perspective of an entrepreneur’s policy decisions. This will lead to identification of policies that would help in harnessing IPRs for the growth of Indian agriculture.

Abstract

Among the 29 Indian states, 14 are linked with 585 regulated mandis with electronic national agricultural market. Across the states, 7.35 million farmers with 53,163 commission agents are registered in these regulated mandis. Every year Government of India announces modified agricultural policies to safeguard the interest of the farming community. Amongst the policies, one of the mechanisms to protect the producers from price fluctuations is Minimum Support Price (MSP). While determining MSP, government takes into account cost of production, cost of living, as well as economic and socio-political factors. For the past two decades, it has been observed that one MSP graph is moving upward but still the farming community seems dissatisfied. The reasons behind MSP variation among states include offering bonus prices additionally with MSP by some states, due to variation in government procurement procedures and policies. As a result, MSP is playing an important role in manoeuvring of prices amongst the various state markets. MSP deviation provides chances for the private sector to take undue advantage and the farmers are adversely affected. The study analyses existence of deviation in mandi prices of staple food between two states from year 2007 to 2018. It will disclose whether centralized price system reduce the cost of government and aid the farmer to get fair valuation.

Abstract

Entrepreneurship essentially involves economic and dynamic activities, risk- assuming and idea generation that help in developing, organising and managing a business opportunity for profits. Entrepreneurship in agriculture is not merely confined to farm activities but also involves activities interlinked and interdependent with core and peripheral agricultural activities. Impediments in the pathway of agricultural entrepreneurship in West Bengal are characterised by fragmented landholding, low financial resources and thereby debt stickiness & dependence on short-term agricultural loan. Though disbursements of short-term credit have increased substantially, the rate of increase is low. For most farmers, insurance for financial or crop crisis is unheard or have hardly any implication. The paper tries to explain the performance of various agricultural insurance schemes in terms of coverage and the benefits being delivered in India and in West Bengal. The paper analyses whether the recipients consider the schemes as an effective risk mitigation tool or merely a habit of credit-dependence in West Bengal through a diffusion model. The paper concludes with the focus on possible entrepreneurial opportunities that may offer more customised agri-insurance policies, where regional disparities could be considered and individual interests be given little more importance.

Abstract

Packaging industry is considered to be one of the world’s largest industrial sectors. In the past few years, food processing has undergone several paradigm changes with respect to production, distribution, storage, processing and retailing. This increasing dynamism in the food industry, while on one hand placing a lot of challenges on the packaging industries, is on the other hand opening up opportunities for entrepreneurs to foray into food processing and also packaging industries and develop appropriate solutions in response to the needs of the market and environment. This study aims at exploring the state of packaging industry and packaging technologies in developing countries, with special emphasis on India, against the backdrop of increasing concern for prevention of food losses and therefore highlighting the need for new innovative ideas for food packaging. The authors posit that customer awareness about safety of processed food has given rise to tremendous possibilities of entrepreneurship opportunities in the area of safe and hygiene packaging. However market preferences, state reputations and cost benefit analysis play major roles in packaging of processed food products.