eChapters

Introduction

For the analysis of electrical power system, different values are required, thus, per unit system provides the value for voltage, current, power, impendence, and admittance. The Per Unit System also makes the calculation easier as all the values are taken in the same unit. The per-unit system is mainly used in the circuit where variation in voltage occurs. The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is converted into per unit quantity by dividing the numeral value by the chosen base value of the same dimension. The per-unit value is dimensionless.

Short Transmission Line

A short transmission line is defined as a transmission line with an effective length less than 80 km (50 miles), or with a voltage less than 69 kV. Unlike medium transmission lines and long transmission lines, the line charging current is negligible, and hence the shunt capacitance can be ignored.

For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is neglected and other parameters like electrical resistance and inductor of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent circuit is represented as given below. Let’s draw the vector diagram for this equivalent circuit, taking receiving end current Ir as reference. The sending end and receiving end voltages make angle with that reference receiving end current, of φs and φr , respectively.

Introduction

Electrical Engineering generally uses a consistent, structured approach to the solving of various practical problems. An acceptable problem-solving approach and method can be defined, although variations can be seen in specific problems. Problems need to be approached methodically, applying an algorithm by which engineer arrives at an acceptable solution.

Problem-Solving Process in Engineering: (i) Define the engineering problem (ii) Create a mathematical model (iii) Develop a computational method for solving the problem (iv) Implement the computational method (v) Test and assess the solution.

7.1 Introduction

Okra is a remunerative vegetable crop for the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Its fresh fruits are important vegetable in India, Brazil, West Africa and many other countries. For year-round consumption sun dried (Africa, India), and frozen and sterilized (USA) fruits are processed from fresh fruits. Tender green fruits are cooked in curry and also used in soups. The root and stem are useful for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery. Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Turkey. Matured fruits and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry. Okra is rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other minerals. A 100g consumable unripe okra fruits contain 10.4g dry matter, 3,100 calorie energy, 1.8g protein, 90mg calcium, 1.0mg iron, 0.1mg carotene, 0.07mg thiamin, 0.08mg riboflavin, 0.08mg niacin and 18 mg vitamin C. The dry seeds contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein. The seed cake is also used as an animal feed. Okra has high iodine content and it has ability to control goiter. Ratoon cropping can also be done in okra.

19.1 Introduction

Roselle is a perennial shrub but grown as an annual. In the seventeenth century, the vegetable types were introduced to India and the United States of America. It is locally known as Mesta or Meshta in the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the important fibre crops, which stands next to jute in production. In India, mesta is grown in larger parts covering areas from Karnataka to Tripura including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Meghalaya. However, Andhra Pradesh has maximum area under mesta in the country. In many tropical regions, it is a popular vegetable, which is cultivated for its leaves, stems, seeds and calyces. Tender young leaves are eaten as a vegetable and the red calyces surrounding the fruit can be used to prepare non-alcoholic beverages and as colouring reagent for jelly, jam, and beverages. The stem is utilised for extraction of fibre. The plant stalks are used in making paper pulp, structural boards, as a blend for wood pulp and thatching huts. The leaves are a source of mucilage used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Culinary cultivars are many branched, bushy and generally 1-2 m tall.

18.1 Introduction

Sorrel is a perennial herb, which is found in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It is of two types such as Garden sorrel that is a native of Europe and south western Asia and French sorrel that is originated in the mountains of southern France and the southern and central regions of Europe and south-west Asia. The name sorrel is derived from the Germanic word, Sur and the old French word Surele, both meaning sour. It is primarily used as a culinary herb for its leaves, which are used in salads too. The leaf of this plant resembles that of spinach and have a lemony lettuce flavour and the plant is well known for strong acidity in Europe and the United States. Sorrel is a rich source of potassium, iron and vitamins A, B1 and C. The flavour of sorrel leaves is mainly due to oxalic acid, which is harmless when consumed in small amount. Owing to high level of vitamin C content, it was rightly believed to protect against scurvy disease. It is a dioecious plant, that bears unisexual flowers, as the male and female flowers appear on different plants. When the plant flowers, they look very attractive and are often used as an ornamental plant.

17.1 Introduction

Basella is a short-lived but productive leafy vegetable of the tropics. Its resistance to pests and diseases makes it very promising for small-scale production in home and market gardens. The plant is a climbing vine with thick fleshy stem and leaves. They are chopped and cooked as vegetables and has ornamental value too. Its leaves are rich source of vitamin A (3250 IU/100g), protein (1.2%) and rich source of iron (1.4mg/100g). The succulent leaves with petioles and tender leaves are cooked as vegetables. The plant is a climbing vine with thick fleshy stem and leaves. It was cultivated since long in South-East Asia and China, and is now widespread throughout tropical Asia, Africa and America. It is a popular vegetable in Malaysia and the Philippines. The colouring matter present in the red cultivar is reported to have been used in China as a red dye for official seals, as ink. These are used to allay fever and as a mild laxative for pregnant women. A decoction from the plant is used to alleviate labour pains. Boiled leaves are used as a poultice. Flower spikes are sold as vegetable in northern Thailand markets. Flowers have been reported as an antidote to poisons. Fruit juice is used as eye-drops in the treatment of conjunctivitis. Cooked roots are used to cure diarrhoea, while cooked leaves and stems are used as a laxative. The red types of Ceylon spinach are very popular ornamentals and are grown as a pot plant in Europe.

16.1 Introduction

Portulaca is an annual potherb, but may be perennial in the tropics. In many parts of the world, it is still regarded as a weed with nutritional potential. Its young stems and leaves are succulent and edible with a slightly acidic and salty taste. Stems are glabrous, fleshy, purplish-red to green, arising from a taproot, often prostrate, forming mats. It is described as a power food of the future because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties. It contains more omega-3 fatty acids (300 to 400 mg/100 g of fresh leaves) than any other leafy vegetable plant. Succulent leaves and stem also contain dietary minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and potassium, as well as vitamins A, C and E and some amount of vitamin B and carotenoids. It has been recommended as a cholesterol lowering agent and as a therapy for arteriosclerosis. Generally, roots and leaves contain more iron and manganese than stems. Due to oxalic acid and nitrate content, excessive consumption of purslane is not recommended. The cultivated form of Purslane, i.e., Portulaca oleracea (garden or green purslane) and Portulaca sativa (yellow leaves, less hardy than the green purslane but possessing the same qualities), is hexaploid. Purslane is a succulent and well-branched herb, leaves are spirally arranged, flowers are yellow, stamens 7-10, style with arms, fruit ovoid, capsule, seeds numerous, tiny and black in colour.

15.1 Introduction

Curry leaf is an important perennial tree vegetable cum spice crop of India mostly used in South Indian culinary preparations for flavouring food stuff. It is an under exploited crop. The leaves have slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste and they retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying. Curry leaf is used in many of the Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions. It has many industrial values and medicinal uses. Its leaves, roots and bark are credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Leaves are reported to cure piles and allay heat of body. The green leaves are said to be eaten raw for treatment of dysentery. External application of pulped bark and root is reported to relive eruptions and bites of poisonous animals. An injection of toasted leaves is used to stop vomiting. The tribal people of India use its ground bark to rub on the bitten Part As a snake bite remedy. The powdered leaves are also used to aid in healing of fresh cuts. The dried curry leaf powder is also a good spice powder for use in the food stuff preparation and is exported. Fresh leaves on a steam distillation under high pressure yield 2.6 % (curry leaf oil) volatile oil which is used as fixative for heavy type of soap and perfume. Rectified leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong spicy odour and pungent clove like taste. A volatile oil, a crystalline glucoside ‘Koenigin’ from the leaves and ‘Murayam’ from the flowers are industrial products. Curry leaf is grown on large scale in West Bengal, Assam, Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is cultivated in Coimbatore, Salem and Tiruchirappalli districts of Tamil Nadu on a commercial scale.

14.1 Introduction

Drumstick is one of the most popular perennial tree vegetables in the south Indian households and known as miracle tree. This perennial vegetable survives for several years and goes on yielding vegetables without much care and attention, and is planted on the side of the kitchen garden without much interference with tillage operations of other annual crops. The fruits, leaves and flowers are used in culinary preparation. Immature fruits are cut into pieces and used in several culinary dishes. Fruits are rich in Vitamin C, carotene, Phosphorus and minerals like Mg, K, S, Cl etc. Tender leaves and flowers are comparable to that of Colocasia in vitamins and minerals. Drumstick leaves contain high amount of vitamin A (four times more than carrot), vitamin C (seven times more than orange), protein (5-10%), calcium (four times more than milk) and potassium (three times more than banana).The roots of the plant are used for seasoning pickles. Its roots are a good substitute for Horse Radish so called as Horse radish tree. It is highly valued for the distinct and appealing flavour for its tender fruits. They are rich source of protein, minerals and vitamins. Seeds contain an oil called ben or behen oil which has been much used for illumination, soap industry and highly priced for lubricating watches, computers, delicate machinery and so known as Ben oil tree. Seeds contain 38-40% of non-drying oil which is clear and odourless, that never becoming rancid. The oil contains high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid up to 67.8%. It is edible and useful in the manufacture of perfumes and hair dressing. The press cake remaining after oil extraction is high in saponin, not edible, but utilized as manure. The oil cake is a water coagulant and used for purifying effluent water. It is used as organic substitute for water purifying chemicals such as aluminium sulphate. Wood yields blue dye and coarse fibre. The plant is used for treatment of rheumatism and as cardiac and circulating system stimulants. It has fragile and cory stem. The trunk is gaining importance as a raw material for paper making. The gum of stem has medicinal properties. The leaves are usually tri-pinnate with elliptic leaflets. Seeds are trigonous with wings on angles. Flowers are produced on current seasons growth on large and erect panicles or monocladial cymes. Flowers are yellowish creamy white and sweet smelling. It is a cross-pollinated crop. Pollinator is carpenter bees, bumble bee, honey bee and flee beetle. Flowering mostly varies from place to place and is greatly influenced by rain, temperature, humidity, wind, soil moisture and soil temperature etc. Peak period of flowering in central parts of India and Kerala is December-January while in southern part it is February-March and July-August with maximum flowering in February-March. Fruits take 60 days for horticultural maturity during rainy season while 30 days in summer.

13.0 Introduction

Cucurbits belong to the family Cucurbitaceae, commonly known as the melon or gourd family. The term cucurbits was coined by Dr Bailey. From nutritional point of view, cucurbit seeds are valued for their high oil and protein contents. Seed proteins and methionine of cucurbits are higher than legumes. Vegetatively propagated cucurbits are pointed gourd, ivy gourd and chow-chow. Long day of 16 hours and high temperature result in maleness. Short day of 9 hours results in femaleness. They are widely distributed in the tropics and warm temperate regions of south, southeast and East Asia, Africa including Madagascar, and central and south America. Cucurbitaceae family is represented by about 117 genera and 825 species. The most common uses of cucurbits are as vegetables and fruits. They are valuable sources of vitamins and minerals. The important cucurbits that are cultivated commercially are cucumber, watermelon, musk melon, long melon, round melon, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, pumpkin, squash, snake gourd, pointed gourd, spine gourd, ivy gourd and chow-chow etc. Cucurbits are used as vegetable, salads, dessert and pickle, and for making of sweets.

12.1 Introduction

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legume vegetables grown for its tender green pods for fresh consumption, processing and dry seeds. The pods are slender, 10-25 cm long, straight or slightly curved with prominent beak. Seeds are kidney shaped, elongated and white, red, purple or blackish in colour or mottled. The vegetable is in great demand in cities and is grown both commercially and in home gardens. Its major area is confined to hills, where it is grown for green pods. Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are the main states where it is being cultivated on large scale. Dry bean seeds are an excellent source of cheap protein and many cultivars contain 22-23 % protein. Hundred grams of edible fresh pods contain 91.4 % water, 1.7 % protein, 0.1 % fat, 0.5 % mineral matters, 4.5 % carbohydrates, 50 mg Ca, 28 mg P and 1.7 mg Fe. Its 100 g dry seeds contain 9.6 % water, 24.9 % protein, 0.8 % fat, 3.2 % mineral matters, 60.1 % carbohydrates, 60 mg Ca, 433 mg P and 2.4 mg Fe. In India, it is mostly grown for fresh consumption, while in USA it is grown for processing in large quantities. Dried beans are rich in protein and closely compared with meat. Phaseolus oborigineus is the progenitor of French bean. They are capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of bacteria found in the nodules on the roots of the plants. Four cultivated species are seen under the genus Phaseolus, i.e., Phaseolus vulgaris—common red kidney bean, Phaseolus coccineus—scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus lanatus— Lima bean, Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius— Moth bean or Tapery bean. All the species are self-pollinated except lima bean which is often cross-pollinated and Phaseolus coccineus is generally cross-pollinated and long day plant.

11.1 Introduction

The term ‘Dolichos’ derived from Greek language means long pod and ‘lablab’, an Arabic term, means production of sound by dried seeds in the pods. In India, it is grown all over the country but compact large acreage for commercial production is uncommon. It is grown for whole pod. Fresh seeds and dry seeds are used as pulse grain. It is used as pod vegetable, feed and green manure crop. It is very popular in villages as well as cities where less area is available for cultivation. The young tender leaves are used in salads and the relatively old leaves are cooked as potherb like spinach. Its fresh green pods contain 86% moisture, 3.8% protein, 6.7% carbohydrate, 0.7% fat, 0.9% mineral matter, Vitamin A 312 IU. It is good source of Vitamin B, Vitamin C, proteins, minerals and dietary fibres. Trypsin inhibitor and several anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and phytates are present in mature and dark coloured seeds. On heating it is broken down into toxic cyanogenic glucoside which is soluble in boiling water. Therefore, it is necessary to boil the mature seeds in water before consumption. Sem is of two types.(A) Dolichos purpureus var. typicus (Graden Type) is with soft, edible pod wall having less fibre. (B) Dolichos purpureus var. lignosus(Field bean) that is grown for fresh dry seed as pulse, pod wall has high fibre content and has characteristic aroma. Hyacinth bean is a perennial herbaceous plant often grown as an annual and pole types are photosensitive.

10.1 Introduction

Cowpea is a typical warm season crop adapted to tropics. It is grown both for its tender pod and dry seed that is used as pulse for culinary purposes. The pods are rich in protein, vitamin B and minerals. It is also used as a fodder and green manure crop. On dry weight basis the cowpea seeds contain 23.4 % protein, 1.8 % fat and 60.3 % carbohydrates. Most probable progenitor of cowpea is Vigna unguiculata var mensensis. It is grown as a catch crop that is drought tolerant and sensitive to water logging. Being a legume crop, cow pea fits well in different inter-cropping systems. It is mainly of two types. Asparagus bean/yard long bean/snake bean (Vigna sesquipedalis) has 30-90 cm long fleshy pod with elongated kidney shaped 8-12 mm long seeds. It is late maturing variety. While catjang bean (Vigna catjang) has 7-13 cm long pods with 5-6 mm kidney shaped seeds. Pulse type of cowpea is Vigna uniguiculata var radiate and dual-purpose cowpea is Vigna uniguiculata var cylindrica.

9.1 Introduction

Cluster bean is grown in India to a lesser extent than other beans. It is a commercial crop of arid and semi-arid regions. It is grown for its green pods that are used as vegetable and dry seeds. It is also grown as forage and green manure crop. Among leguminous crops it is comparatively hardier, drought resistant and cultivated on a large scale as a forage crop in dry regions because of its deep tap root system which enables it to recover from water stress. Some of the cultivars are used for extraction of gum called as guargum. The gum obtained from this crop is like a mucilaginous substance called galactomannan that is used in various industries particularly textiles, cosmetics, explosives and paper. Due to its colloidal nature, the gum acts as a stabilizer and thickener in food products,viz., ice cream, bakery mixes and salad dressings. The seeds of clusterbean contain about 30-33% gum in the endosperm. The gum in the seeds are galactomannan polysaccharides. The discovery of the galactomannan gum in the endosperm during 1948, led to its importance as an industrial crop. Today it is one of the significant foreign exchange earners of the country. Fresh pods contain 82.5% water, 9.9% carbohydrate, 3.7% protein, 0.2% fat, 2.3% fibre and 1.4% mineral matter. Cyamopsis senegalensis is the ancestor of guar. The largest growing state is Rajasthan (82%). Young plants of cluster bean contain hydrocyanic acid which causes toxicity to animals. It is an amide (asparagine and glutamine) producing legumes.

8.1 Introduction

Amaranth is one of the oldest food crops in the world, with evidence of its cultivation reaching well back to 6700 BC. The genus Amaranthus consists of nearly about 60 species, which includes leafy vegetables, vegetables for grains, ornamental plants as well as weeds. The word amaranth has actually been derived from the Greek word amarantos, which means unwithering and the people who used it symbolize immortality. The Hindi term for amaranth, Ramdana, means God’s own grain. Amaranthus tricolor L. is the most common species grown as leafy vegetable during summer and rainy season in India but it can be grown throughout the year. It fits well in crop rotations because of its very short duration and large yield of edible matter per unit area. The estimation of the extent of its cultivation is not available. Green or leafy types are usually grown in kitchen and market garden. Amaranth is more widely used as a potherb. The grain Amaranthus species are popular in the high lands of tropical and sub-tropical America. It is gaining importance in the Indian plains also, particularly in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Grain types are usually grown as mixed crops along with cereals, pulses and vegetables.

6.1 Introduction

Capsicum is mostly consumed raw in green mature forms unlike in Europe and US where they are consumed in red ripe form in salads, cooked, mixed and stuffed vegetables. It is known as bell pepper because of its fruit shape. The fruits of capsicum are non-pungent, so popularly known as sweet pepper; but some cultivars are slightly pungent. Capsicums are grown throughout the Old world and New world as a commercial crop mainly in mid-hill regions or protected structures. Its cultivation is restricted to cooler regions of the world. In Spain, it is referred to as ‘pimientos’ due its red colour and sweet taste. Fruits are rich in vitamins C and D (beneficial to the vascular system), as well as vitamins A, B1 , and B2 . It has four different colours such as green, red, yellow and purple. The oleoresin extracted from bell pepper is of better quality than that extracted from Chilli.

5.1 Introduction

Chilli is a tropical vegetable crop but considered as an important spice crop of India. Chilli is mainly used in culinary purpose for adding flavour, colour and pungency. It is consumed both in mature and immature stage. In immature form it is valued for pungency and in ripe dried form it is valued both for pungency and colour. Dry chilli powdered or ground into a paste and even green chillies are used for curries, sambars, rasam and other savory dishes to impart pungency, colour and flavour to food items. It is widely used in the manufacture of curry powder, curry paste and all kinds of pickles and preparing sauce, soups, salads etc. In food and beverage industries chilli is being used in the form of oleoresin which permits better distribution of colour, flavour in food. Capsaicin, the pungent principle, is present in cores or septa walls and placenta. It is used in the preparation of balms, whereas the colour extracts (Capsanthin/carotenoid pigments) find use as colour additives in food industry, poultry and prawn feed industry. Green chillies are rich in Rutin which has pharmaceutical use and known as Vitamin P. Oleoresin present in chilli permits better distribution of colour and flavour in food as compared to chilli powder due to cleanliness and uniform flavour. Oleoresin is used in preparation of processed products and also in a number of pharmaceutical formulations. A non-conventional use of chilli is for self-defence sprays of capsicum oleoresin at ultra-high emission rate which temporarily immobilizes the attacker. Highest pungent chilli of the world is Bhoot Jolokia/Naga King chilli (Capsicum chinensis) in NE India. Hotness of Naga king Chilli is 10,01,304 SHU (Scovonelle Heat Unit). At present chillies are grown in almost all states of the country. The major chilli growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Rajasthan. Within a span of over four centuries, it has spread to an area of around 0.8 million ha. The area and production keeps varying depending on price fluctuations and the weather conditions. Area under chilli cultivation in India is 0.831 million ha with a production 1.87 million tonnes of dry chilli. Andhra Pradesh has been leading both in area and production contributing on average of 25 per cent of the total area and over 40 to 50 per cent of the total production. Chillies have adapted very well to the Indian condition so that, India is considered as secondary centre of origin.

4.1 Introduction

It is an annual crop cultivated all over India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Japan, South East Asia and Philippines. The fruits are available practically throughout the year. Brinjal fruits are a good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins particularly ‘B’ group. A 100 g of edible fruit contains 91.5g of water, 6.4 g of carbohydrates, 1.3g of protein, 0.3g of fat and 0.5g of mineral matters. Its green leaves are the main source of vitamin C (38-104.7mg/100g). Dark purple brinjal has more vitamin C than those with white skin. Bitterness in brinjal is due to presence of glycoalkaloid solasodine. Generally, high amount of glycoalkaloids (20mg/100g) in the fruits produce a bitter taste and off flavour. Brinjal is reported to stimulate the intrapeptic metabolism of blood cholesterol and has marked drop in blood cholesterol level. The de-cholestrolising action is attributed due to the presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids, PUFA (linoleic and linolenic) which are present in flesh and seeds of fruit in higher amount (65.1%). The presence of Mg and K salts also helps in de-cholestrolising action. Dry fruit is reported to contain goitrogenic principles. Aqueous extracts of fruit inhibit choline esterase activity of human plasma. Brinjal has got much potential as raw material in pickle making and dehydration industries. It is supposed to contain certain medicinal properties and white brinjal is said to be good for diabetic patients. The fruits are regarded as a cure for toothache. It is also an excellent remedy for those who are suffering from liver complaints. Cu content and polyphenol oxidase activity are highest in purple colour fruits and lowest in white fruit. Fe and catalase activity are highest in green fruited cultivars and lowest in white fruited cultivars. White fruited cultivars contain twice as much crude fibre as the purple and green fruited cultivars. Solanum ferox is yellow fruited type and is very popular in southern Europe, France and Italy and USA. Vitamin C content of brinjal is affected by canning. Toasting of fruits raises the nicotinic acid at the expense of trigonellin which is present in it and 66-69% of it is converted into nicotinic acid during toasting.

3.1 Introduction

Tomato is one of the most versatile vegetable with wide usage not only in Indian culinary but also in world cuisines. Despite botanically being a fruit, it is generally eaten and prepared like a vegetable. Tomato is producing a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and provides nutrition to the growing population. Sometimes, it is called poor man’s orange in India and Love of Apple in England. Tomato is one of the most important “protective foods” because of its special nutritive value. The100 g of edible portion of tomato contains 94.1 g of water,2.5 g of total sugar, 1.0 g of protein, 0.3 g of fat, 4.0 g of carbohydrates, 0.6 g of fibre, vitamin A (1100 I.U), vitamin B (0.20 mg), vitamin C (23 mg), malic acid (150 mg), citric acid (390 mg), oxalic acid (3.5 mg), potassium (268 mg), and phosphorus (27 mg). Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid. Tomatoes are the major dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has been linked to many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer. It is used for treating chronic dyspepsia, bronchitis, asthma and also used as a blood purifier. Tomato fruits contain 20-50 mg of lycopene/100 g fruit. Tomatine is a steroidal glycoalkaloid present in tomato. Tomatine content is higher in leaves and flowers than fruits. Tomatine content is 300 mg/100 g in small hard tomato fruits whereas in large green tomato it is 150mg/100 g. There are various types of flavouring compounds found in fruits, which enrich the taste;so, several processed items like paste, puree, syrup, juice, ketchup, drinks etc are prepared on large scale. Tomato fruit aroma is due to sulfonium. Tomato acidity is due to citric acid and pH of the tomato juice is 4.5.Tomato is very good appetizer and its soup is said to be a good remedy for patients suffering from constipation. Three flesh colours are found in tomato, namely, red (lycopene pigment), yellow (carotenoid) and tangerine (prolycopene).Tomato seed oil (24%) is used for manufacture of margarine. About 33% of total tomato growing area is covered by F1 hybrids which is highest among the vegetables grown in India. A book entitled Tomato was written by Dr. G. Kallo in 1986.