eChapters

Lisianthus is among top ten cut flower crop of the world. In short duration of 20-30 years it become top ranking flower crop of world due to its beautiful flowers which bears beauty of different top ranking old commercial flower crops with variation in flower colours, shape, size with long vase life. It looks like tulips as they began to open and as poppies when fully opened, gaps between the petals appears like daisy, ruffled petals resemble carnations and the most important one is the flower buds and opened double type lisianthus resemble rose buds and open flower respectively and there is no doubt that this is a primary reason for consumer acceptance. Double flowered lisianthus are more demanded in U.S. as cut flower about 80% of lisianthus market whereas, single flowered are more dominant in Japanese and European markets. In Japan over 129 million cut stems were sold in 2001 placing it on number one position in Europe, over 122 million cut stems were sold in 2001 and placing it in top ten ranking and in the United States over 14 million cut stems were sold in 2002, it is not only popular as a cut flower but also as a bedding plant and a pot plant in market (Grueber et al., 1985, Halevy and Kofranek, 1984, Roh and Lawson, 1987, Tjia and Sheehan, 1984, Tija and Sheehan 1986, Skrzypczak et al., 1993 and Harbaugh, 2007), a plant bears 20-30 flowers per plant (Skrzypczak et al., 1993).

Lisianthus (Eustoma) is herbaceous perennial in some cases annual and biennial (Farina, 1989, Halevy and Kofranek, 1984, Wilkins and Grueber, 1983 and Harbaugh, 2007) belongs to family Gentianaceae (Oren-shamir et al., 1999) and genus “Lisianthus”, which is also used as the common name for Eustoma grandiflorum, the plant was commonly known as Lisianthus russellianus when first listed in seed catalogues in the early 1980’s in the United State, later it was given scientific name Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn. (synonyms Eustoma andrewsii; E. russellianum; Lisianthus russellianus) (Bailey and Baily, 1976, Everett, 1981 and Harbaugh, 2007). However, Lisianthus is also known as the Prairie gentian or Texas bluebell (Markham, 1996 and Harbaugh, 2007) and Prairie Rose (Harbaugh, 2007). Eustoma is named after the two Greek words Eu (beautiful, good, well) and stoma (mouth) (Uddin et al., 2013). It is a self compatible (Harbaugh, 2007 and Markham, 1996), diploid crop (Markham, 1996). The buds are colourless is a great disadvantage as an ornamental growth. The range of flower colours available in commercial lines is limited to white and purple, shades of cream, pink, mauve and purple (Markham, 1996 and Harbaugh, 2007).

E. grandiflorum has a set of pharmacologically active compounds and therefore can be a valuable therapeutic material, or can serve as a source of pure chemical compound, apart from its strictly ornamental uses (Skrzypczak et al., 1993).

Since the periods of Hippocrates and Lord Buddha cholera like symptoms was described in human. The first outbreak of cholera was described in India in 1817. Filippo Pacini (1854), an Italian anatomist, observed a gram-negative bacterium associated with human cholera. Robert Koch (1884) first isolated and confirmed the association of ‘comma-shaped bacteria’, later designated as Vibrio cholerae with the disease in Calcutta (India). In 1959, Sambhu Nath De, Professor of Pathology at Nilratan Sircar Medical College in Calcutta discovered the exotoxin produced by V. cholerae and a simple method (rabbit ligated ileal loop assay) to study the in vitro effect of exotoxins. The Ganges delta of India and Bangladesh is considered as the worst affected place with cholera although the infection is widespread throughout the world. The spread of cholera in different continents occurred through six ‘waves’ (‘pandemics’) since 1817. The current seventh pandemic (7P) was originated in Indonesia (Sulawesi) in 1961 and spread throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America. In 1963, the seventh pandemic reached South Asia and circulated for more than 50 years with intermittent transmission to other continents. The recent major 7^th pandemic outbreak was detected in Haiti causing more than 9400 deaths in 2010 which was originated through patients from endemic countries.

In 1886, Escherich observed Campylobacter like organisms in stool samples of children with diarrhoea. In 1913, McFaydean and Stockman first confirmed the bacteria as Campylobacter in foetal tissues of aborted sheep. Confirmatory tests were also carried out by Smith in 1918 when similar bacteria were isolated from aborted bovine foetuses. The bacteria were then known as Vibrio foetus. In 1963, due to certain differentiating characteristics, the organisms were separated from Vibrionaceae family and the new genus Campylobacter (means ‘curved rod’) under Campylobacteraceae family was proposed.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Introduction
In the twenty-first century, the importance of the fisheries and aquaculture sectors to global food security and nutrition has become more and more evident. The global population is anticipated that there will be roughly 10 billion people (by 2050) on the planet, which will lead to an increase in food demand. Over the past few decades, the aquaculture sector acted as the most promising food-producing sector (FAO, 2022). According to reports, the aquaculture sector in India has suffered significant harm from the recurrent occurrence of infectious diseases with bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens, which has hindered sustainable development. Reports have surfaced regarding the emergence and reappearance of diseases in aquaculture (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005). Over the past twenty years, there has been a major increase in the occurrence of pathogens and disease emergence and reemergence. In addition, it has become clear that diseases transcend the boundaries of land and water when they first appear or reappear. This means that the transfer of germs and the dissemination of diseases are closely associated with fish movement, particularly with live fish intended for aquaculture or ornamental seafood sector. Therefore, biosecurity measures are essential for safeguarding our food supply, the environment, and both human and animal populations from the introduction and spread of various diseases (Austin et al., 2022; Austin, 2023).

12.1 Introduction

Micronization is a size reduction in which particles are reduced down to micrometer resulting in particle-size distribution is less than 10 microns. Acceleration of particles has been involved for particle-to-particle impact or impact against a solid surface. Micron technology is an emerging technology which has a great potential in nutraceuticals and functional foods. By increasing the surface area per unit mass, compared with larger-sized particles of the same chemistry, tiny particles are made more biologically active. A lot of attention has been gained by micronization in food research and development. Functional properties, surface areas and structures gets altered by reduction in particle sizes of different materials (e.g., metal salts, metal oxides, chitosan and organic compounds) by micronization or nanotechnology to micro- or nano-sizes and bring some new applications in the academic world as well as in food industry.

They absorb a large concentration (10-40 wt %) of C0₂ that either swells the polymer or melts it at a temperature below (10 to 50 °C) it’s melting/ glass transition temperature hence, this technique is useful for micronization of especially for polymers. Active substrate(s) in a polymer or other carrier substance can be used with suspensions for micronization process. In manufacturing advanced pharmaceuticals, coating materials, micro sensors, polymers and many other chemicals particle design has been gaining importance. Formulation homogeneity and control particle size can be improved by micronization. Moreover, bioavailability of poorly soluble APIs (active pharmaceutical ingredient) by increasing particle surface area and accelerating dissolution rates can also be improved. Because of the high impact velocities possible as a result of particle acceleration in a fast gas stream, fluid energy mills are used for micronization. Particle velocities in a jet mill are in the range of 300 to 500 meters per second, compared to 50 to 150 meters per second in a mechanical impact mill, in many industrial fields like food technology, pharmaceuticals, catalysts, pigments, and biopolymers, for example, are some categories of products that can be used as micro-sized particles, micronized powders are of great interest. High-temperature reactions that require high energies, on jet milling that is characterized by low efficiencies and mechanical stress, and on liquid solvents precipitation that has a poor control on particle size and can pollute the product comes under the traditional techniques for producing micronic powders. Generally, the control of the powder size and the span of its distribution are still very approximate. In recent years, many supercritical fluids-based techniques have been developed for the production of micronic and nanometric particles. Some particular properties of gases at supercritical conditions such as enhanced solubilization modulation and its power, large diffusivities, organic solvent reduced operation, and the connected possibility of controlling powder size and distribution resulted from this process. Important characteristics of powders like particle size and size distribution have significant effects on dissolution properties, flowability and release kinetics. Therefore, particle engineering is the most important step during processing of powdered foods. Lower micrometer range and sizes are needed for many applications particles with special requirements. Processes like jet milling, pearl milling or high pressure homogenization are used for micronization.

Dry Root Rot / Charcoal Rot

Macrophomina phaseolina

Economic Importance

• Dry root rot has been found in most of the soybean-growing areas of the India.
• The disease has been increasing in importance and can result in substantial yield losses.
• In most fields, stand losses range from less than 5% to over 50% in severe cases.
• It is most prevalent on seedling and young plants, causing a root and stem rot.

Biological control is a strategy which employs utilization of natural enemies to reduce the damage caused by noxious organisms to tolerable levels (De Bach and Rosen, 1991). This is the most benign method for reducing pest population in vegetable ecosystem. It opens an amicable platform for production of organic vegetables with good export value. Since the late 1950s, much of the insect control in vegetables has been based on the use of synthetic chemical insecticides.

Capsicum species are members of family Solanaceae, which include tomato, potato, tobacco and petunia.  Pepper, chile, chili, aji, paprika and capsicum are used interchangeably for plants in the genus Capsicum.  The word Capsicum is reserved for taxonomic discussion (Bosland, 1992). The indigenous people of Americas evolved pepper through breeding and domestication of Capsicum species. Global diversification was facilitated by age of exploration, and subsequent establishment of land races and farmers selections.  Classical genetic and cytogenetic exploitation of Capsicum species began in 1940s and continued throughout the century (Poulos, 1994). Data on crossability and hybrid sterility are developed to reinforce or revise views on the rank of morphologically distinguishable taxa, while studies on chromosomes and isozymes aided in understanding the relationships between domesticated and wild species and the course of evolution within the domesticated species.

Approaches in Extension

Agricultural extension services have gone through various stages over the years, from the individual farm visits approach to the T&V approach. All these approaches are characterized to a greater or lesser extent, by a “ top- down” planning. Extension approaches mostly determine the direction and nature of the system in terms of structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques, resources, and linkages. Extension approach is a style of action within a system which embodies the philosophy of the system. Although there are many approaches to agricultural extension, there is certain commonality in them. All approaches function through non- formal education and all have agricultural content for the development of rural people.

Ministry- based General Extension

Ministry of Agriculture was entrusted with agricultural extension in a top- down manner for planning for the adoption of technologies. An increase in national production is taken as the measure of success.

All persons engaged in agriculture are the clients of this public extension who are served by extension staff. Program formulation and implementation are guided by public interest. Ministry- based extension faces difficulty in serving the majority of potential clientele and financial constraints that force it to reduce the staff. Whereas extension demands location- specific technologies and flexible decisions, the university extension is mostly top- down in nature. As the approach lacks a two- way approach the messages are not location specific. Production alternatives are absent in this approach.

The Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

The chapter “Breeding Strategies for Disease Resistance” provides a comprehensive exploration of addressing disease resistance through various breeding strategies. In an era of escalating global challenges and climate change, where crop failures can lead to food shortages and economic instability, the chapter delves into strategies that integrate traditional breeding methods with cutting-edge genetic advancements to strengthen plants against pathogens. Understanding the genetics of plant–pathogen interactions holds profound importance. This knowledge elucidates the mechanisms underpinning disease development and offers insights into developing targeted strategies for disease management. By deciphering the genetic details governing host susceptibility and pathogen virulence, we gain the ability to engineer crops with enhanced resistance, reducing reliance on chemical interventions and promoting sustainable agriculture. The chapter further discusses the mechanism of disease resistance in plants which involves inherent genetic traits that identify pathogen molecules, triggering a rapid defense response called “gene-for-gene” interaction. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), where a local pathogen attack prompts the entire plant to boost its defense preparedness. Signaling molecules like salicylic acid play a pivotal role. Additionally, plants employ chemical defenses via secondary metabolites and leverage beneficial microorganisms to stimulate immune pathways. This coordinated approach empowers plants to effectively counter pathogens and elevate disease resistance. In this chapter, we discuss breeding strategies for disease resistance that encompass a range of vital approaches. Traditional methods involve selecting and breeding plants with inherent resistance traits and incorporating genes from related species to enhance defenses.

4.1. Flower and flowering in pigeonpea

Growth habit: Primarily, there are two major growth types in pigeonpea. These are determinate and non-determinate. The determinate growth in the pigeonpea plants is characterized by flowers in bunches at the top of the canopy (Fig 17a). In this case the epical growing points are transformed in to reproductive buds and bunches of flowers appear on the top of the canopy. Such cultivars are not popular as the management of insects such as Helicoverpa and Maruca becomes very difficult. Most of the cultivated types belong to another growth category called as non-determinate. In such genotypes the apical growing points remain vegetative and the plants keep growing under favorable conditions and it results in tall canopy with many spreading or compact branches. The inflorescence in this case emerges from the axil of secondary and tertiary branches (Fig 17b); and hang sideways. These types show less susceptibility to insects due to non-clustering nature of flowers.

1.1 Introduction

Water is the basis of all forms of life. It supports life system not only to the plants but also to all other animals. The embryo from the conception till birth floats in the liquid medium. Cell, the basic unit of life, contains as high as 95- 98% water. Cellular metabolism is controlled by content of water. Majority of this water requirement of the crops is met from different forms of precipitation. However, when the water requirement is not fully met from precipitation, then growth of the crops is affected. This results in reduction of yield of the crops. The reduction in yield depends on the amount of scarcity of water requirement of the crops. Water requirement of crops depend on many factors. It depends on the type of crops, irrigation schedules practiced, soil texture, position of groundwater table below the effective root zone of the crop and management practice followed in crop cultivation. The pulses, oilseeds, vegetables which are also otherwise termed as dry land crops need less water compared to rice which is a water loving crops and perennial crops like sugarcane and banana.

Water requirement of crops is partly met by the upward flux of groundwater. The capillary rise of shallow water table in the form of upward flux helps in meeting the water requirement of crops to some extent. The upward flux depends on the type of the soil, effective root zone depth of the crop, depth of water table below effective root zone depth of the crop and potential gradient of soil moisture suction. The residual soil moisture helps in supporting water requirement of crops also. The heavy soil like clay has more moisture retention capacity than the light soils like sandy soil. The residual soil moisture held in clay soil is released slowly and supports soil moisture to the crops for a longer period than the sandy soil which has less soil moisture retention capacity. After meeting the water requirement of crops from all sources including different forms of precipitation, ground water contribution by capillary rise and residual soil moisture, if there is any shortage of water, then this shortage should be met from other sources which is called as irrigation.

Root Rot or Charcoal Rot

Rhizoctonia bataticola

(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)

Economic Importance

• Charcoal rot is of great economic importance in the World and has been found to reduce head weight and diameter, stem height and weight and in particular, the stem girth and root weight of sunflower plants.
• The first report of the occurrence of charcoal rot on sunflower was from Sri Lanka by Small (1927).
• Under favourable condition, losses can reach 60-90%.
• Infected plants generally die before seed set is finished.

Abstract

Milk is the almost complete and highly nutritious food for mammals, as it supplies all the energy and nutrients needed for the proper growth and development of the neonate. Milk proteins are considered the most key source of bioactive peptides and an increasing number of bioactive peptides have been identified in fermented dairy products and milk protein hydrolysates,. These bioactive peptides are sequences between 2 and 20 amino acids that improve the physiological functions and inhibit chronic diseases. The bioactive peptides are inactive within the sequence of the origin protein and can be released by addition of various types of proteolytic enzymes, coagulation enzymes and starter culture during milk processing. Once bioactive peptides are release in the body, these peptides may act as regulatory compounds with hormone-like activity. Furthermore, bioactive peptides from milk proteins have many biological activities such as antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, antioxidant, mineral binding, and anti-diabetic. Due to their physiological and physico-chemical variability, milk bioactive peptides are considered as greatly important components for health stimulating foods or pharmaceutical applications. Over the past few decades, major advances and developments have been achieved on the novel bioactive peptide and commercial applications of bioactive components which are present naturally in the milk. The aim of this chapter is to focus on the bioactive peptide present in milk, extraction of bioactive peptide, functional capability of bioactive peptides in milk and their importance in human health including bio active peptide based commercial dairy products.

Extension Program

Planning an extension program involves decision- making about the work of the organization. Extension program planning covers a set of objectives to be achieved by various activities included in the planning. Extension organization needs to decide the goal it aims at, the target group, the content of extension message, its use, and organization of all activities. The program includes situation analysis, and an action plan for solving people’s problems which is drawn in advance. Extension workers have to decide the goals, target group, messages, extension methods, and media and organization of activities. While setting the goal, the perception of the present situation and the vision of the desired situation should be borne in mind. The target group is normally larger than the extension worker contacts directly or through mass media. The target group can be contacted indirectly. The extension content depends on the goal, the target group, and the extension strategy. The content should be so selected that it can be implemented with the resources available to the farmers locally. A combination of extension methods need to be used. The extension program needs to be flexible and can be easily implemented by the organization.

Extension Program Planning

Extension program planning indicates an account of the activities to be undertaken by the organization.

The essential phases of program planning in extension are analyzing the situation, setting goals and objectives, identifying problems and gaps, developing work plan, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and reconsideration.

Bleeding disorders can be either congenital, present from birth, or acquired, developing later in life. Defects in blood clotting proteins typically result in delayed bleeding and deep tissue bruising, whereas platelet defects often lead to superficial bruises, nosebleeds, black stools, and prolonged bleeding at injection sites or during surgery. Blood clotting tests can identify animals with defective clotting proteins, but they are not very sensitive.
Congenital Clotting Protein Disorders
Congenital clotting protein disorders are present from birth, and severe deficiencies or defects in these proteins typically manifest early in life. Such severe defects can be fatal, with affected animals often being stillborn or dying shortly after birth. Additionally, a lack of clotting proteins or vitamin K in a newborn can exacerbate clotting issues. If the level of a specific clotting protein is only 5 to 10% of normal, the newborn might survive but is likely to show signs of illness before reaching 6 months of age.
Hypofibrinogenemia, characterized by an abnormal shortage of fibrinogen in the blood and severe bleeding, has been observed in Saint Bernards. Dysfibrinogenemia, which involves abnormally functioning fibrinogen, has been reported in an inbred family of Russian Wolfhounds. Affected dogs experience mild bleeding problems, such as nosebleeds, but may suffer life-threatening bleeding from injuries or surgeries. The best treatment for this condition is intravenous transfusion with fresh or fresh-frozen plasma.
Factor II (prothrombin) disorders are rare. Prothrombin is a key protein in blood clotting. In Boxer dogs, prothrombin is present in normal amounts but does not function properly. Affected puppies may experience nosebleeds and bleeding gums, which tend to improve with age. In adult dogs, easy bruising and inflamed skin are common. Treatment involves transfusions of whole blood or plasma Factor VII deficiency has been reported in several breeds, including Beagles, English Bulldogs, Alaskan Malamutes, Miniature Schnauzers, Boxers, and mixed-breed dogs. This condition can lead to prolonged bleeding after giving birth and is often diagnosed incidentally during clotting tests.

Agricultural meteorology stands as a cornerstone discipline in ensuring global food security, optimizing resource utilization, and fostering sustainable agricultural practices. In an era marked by increasing climate variability and the profound impacts of long-term climate change, the need for a dynamic and forward-thinking research agenda in this field has never been more critical. This chapter serves as a roadmap, outlining a comprehensive research agenda for the new generation of agricultural meteorologists, one that directly confronts the escalating challenges while strategically capitalizing on the unprecedented opportunities offered by technological advancements and enhanced data availability.
• The complexities introduced by a rapidly changing climate – characterized by more frequent and intense extreme weather events, shifts in growing seasons, and altered pest and disease patterns – demand innovative research approaches. Simultaneously, breakthroughs in sensor technology, remote sensing capabilities, data analytics, artificial intelligence, and communication platforms present unprecedented opportunities to revolutionize how we monitor, understand, predict, and respond to the intricate interactions between weather, climate, and agricultural systems.
• A well-defined and meticulously managed research agenda is paramount to effectively channel our collective scientific efforts. It provides a framework for identifying critical knowledge gaps, prioritizing research endeavors, fostering collaboration across disciplines, and ultimately, maximizing the impact of our investigations. Strategic research management ensures the efficient allocation of resources, promotes rigorous scientific inquiry, facilitates the seamless translation of research findings into practical, onthe- ground solutions, and informs evidence-based policy decisions that can bolster the resilience and productivity of the agricultural sector.
• Recognizing the diverse ecosystem of researchers who contribute to the advancement of agricultural meteorology, it is imperative to delineate specific research areas that are both relevant and achievable for individuals at various stages of their academic and professional journeys. This chapter will therefore provide a clear demarcation of research avenues suitable for Masters students seeking foundational research experiences, doctoral

Introduction
• Cytogenetics is essentially a branch of genetics, but is also a part of cell biology/ cytology (a subdivision of human anatomy), that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behavior, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis and meiosis. Techniques used include karyotyping analysis of G-band chromosomes, as well as molecular cytogenetics such as fluorescent in situ hybridization (CGH). Cytogenetic approaches to studying chromosomes and their relationship to human disease have improved greatly over the past several decades.
As a mature enterprise, cytogenetics now inform genomics, disease and cancer genetics, chromosomes evolution and the relationship of nuclear structure to function. Cytogenetics involves testing samples of tissue, blood or bone marrow in a laboratory to look for changes in chromosomes including broken, missing, rearranged or extra chromosome. Cytogenetics may used to help diagnose a disease or condition, plan treatment or find out how well treatment is working.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the rod shaped; dark-stained bodies seen during metaphase stage of mitosis. The chromosomes are the nuclear components of special organization, individuality and function. They are capable of self-reproduction and play a vital role in heredity, mutation, variation and evolutionary development of the species. Chromosomes are thread-like structure located inside the nucleus. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure. The number of chromosomes is constant for a particular species. Therefore, these are of great importance in the determination of the phylogeny and taxonomy of the species. The number of chromosomes varies from species to species but the number remains constant in a species. But sometime, due to certain accidents or irregularities at the time of cell division, crossing over or fertilization some alteration in morphology and number of chromosomes takes place. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes-22 pairs of numbered chromosomes, called autosomes, and one pair of sex chromosome, X and Y. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair so that offspring get half of their chromosomes from mother and half from their father.

Nucleic acids were first discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Meischer. Nucleic acids are high molecular weight polymers that are present in our cells. They  store and transfer genetic material from generation to generation. Knowledge of how genes are expressed and how they can be manipulated is becoming increasingly important for understanding   of nearly every aspect of biochemistry. These macromolecules pass on information for cellular growth and reproduction.  All the genetic information in the cells is called the genome. Every time a cell divides, the information is copied and passed on to the new cells.
 
Nucleic acids fall into two main classes according to the type of sugar they contain: the Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and Ribonucleic acids (RNA). Some sections  of  the  DNA  called  genes contain the information to make a protein. RNA translates the genetic information in the DNA to the ribosomes, where the synthesis of proteins takes place.

Introduction

In geographical location, the observations taken in proximity tend to be more alike than observations made at points that are far apart-that is, the values tend to be correlated. An area of study that takes this sort of spatial consideration into account is called geostatistics. A primary motivation for sampling is to make meaningful estimates of values at nearby positions in space and time. When values are assumed independent, the best estimate for an unmeasured point will be the mean. However, for correlated values nearby values are estimated by interpolation. The simplest interpolation scheme is a nearest neighbor estimate for which the unknown values are based on the closest measured location. Inverse distance is another sort of interpolation technique where weights are estimated based on the inverse distance squared. Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that considers both the distance and the degree of variation between known data points when estimating values in unknown areas.

It makes the best use of existing knowledge by taking account of the way that a property varies in space through the variogram model. In its original formulation a kriged estimate at a place was simply a linear sum or weighted average of the data in its neighbourhood. Weights are based on the distance between the measured points, the prediction locations, and the overall spatial arrangement among the measured points. Since then kriging has been elaborated to tackle increasingly complex problems in mining, petroleum engineering, pollution control and abatement, and public health. The term is now generic, embracing several distinct kinds of kriging, both linear and non-linear.