eChapters

Seed is the basic input in agriculture that acts as a catalyst for realising the full production potential of the high yielding/improved varieties. The role of quality seed in agriculture has been recognized since the ancient periods. It is a well established fact that among all the agricultural inputs, use of quality seed alone can enhance the crop production up to 15-20 per cent, depending upon the crop, and it can be further raised up to 45 per cent with efficient management of other inputs. If the seed sown is of inferior quality, the efforts of the plant breeders in developing and introducing improved varieties would be rendered futile. Modern agriculture lays great emphasis that each and every seed should germinate readily with full potential and produce vigorous seedlings to ensure high yields.

In Indian Agriculture pulses play an important role in maintaining soil fertility and supplying protein to the vegetarian population of the country. This is because they are endowed with unique property of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in their root nodules and improving soil physical property. Further, it is not only the high protein content of pulses for which they are important, but the amino acid profile of these proteins is such that the mixed diet of cereals and pulses has superior biological value than either of the components alone.

Pulse crops have a unique position in sustainable crop production as they provide proteinaceous food of high nutritive value and keep the soil alive and productive. India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world which accounts for 32 per cent of global area and 28 per cent of world’s pulse production. But the yield levels of these pulse crops are not satisfactory as it is grown as a neglected crop. Besides, extensive damage caused by insect pests is another major constraint for low yield of pulse crops. On an average annually 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of pulses are lost (Rabindra et al., 2004) with a monetary value of nearly Rs.6,000 crores due to ravages of insect pest complex (Reddy, 2009 and Panda et al. 1998). About 250 insects have been recorded feeding on these pulse crops in different parts of India (Narang, 1990) of which maximum damage is caused by the pod borer complex along with some sucking pests and foliage feeders. Sap feeders viz., aphids, whitefly, leaf hopper, thrips ; defoliator viz., leaf roller, hairy caterpillars etc are major threats to the crop during vegetative stage whereas the pod borers and pod sucking bugs are of major concern during reproductive stage. About two dozen insect pests are very important and found occurring on one or the other pulse crop frequently causing variable degrees of damage. A list of the very common insect and mite pests infesting different pulse crops (Table 1) and the extent of loss caused by different insect pests to some important pulse crops documented by the IIPR, Kanpur (Table 2) are furnished below.

Abstract

The increasing interest in polyphenolic compounds in industries has led to the exploration and exploitation of rich bio-compounds from natural sources, essentially plants and their by-products. Solid-liquid extraction is mostly applied for the recovery of these valuable compounds from plants. Since the extraction process is often difficult in a fresh matrix, a drying operation is needed to reduce the moisture content, and preserve the targeted valuable compounds. An uncontrolled drying operation will lead to product damage and hence, loss in quality, reason why, several studies have been carried out to understand and control the drying process. The present chapter aims to present some data on drying for bioactive compound recovery from plants and their by-products, mainly polyphenolic compounds. Our main interest is the mathematical tools used to model the drying process.

Abstract

Design, operation and optimization of dryers demands the calculation of energy consumption, in most cases in the form of thermal energy, equipment sizing, temperature and moisture distribution of solids as well as temperature and humidity distribution of drying air. Energy calculations are very important as drying is a widespread process in a variety of industries and is highly energy demanding. In the energy analysis of the process the first step is the estimation of the minimum energy requirement followed by the estimation of energy rejection through solids stream and especially through drying air. Increase of thermal efficiency is always willing and the two most common ways for its achievement is the application of heat exchange between cold feeding air and relatively hot rejecting drying air and hot air recirculation. The later is also employed for the adjustment of air temperature and humidity gradient through the dryer. The combination of a heat pump with the dryer decreases considerably the thermal energy consumption but demands electricity and the method can be beneficial in cases of excess electricity production in the process plant, e.g. by cogeneration. Utilization of exhaust hot air from the main drying unit for the predrying of wet solids can also decrease the total energy requirement. The application of humidity adsorption from the feed air increases its drying potential, but regeneration of adsorbent is required. Grand composite curve of the process plant can reveal potential heat sources from different unit operations.

Abstract

Vitamin C is one of the most important phytochemicals and can be found in almost all fruits and vegetables. Since it covers almost all eventualities, being water solute and prone to leaching from cells, thermally labile (one of the most labile vitamins), pH-, metal ion-, light-sensitive, as well as readily oxidizable by ascorbic acid oxidase, vitamin C is selected as the most frequently measured nutrient to evaluate the nutrients loss during thermal processing. It is generally accepted that if vitamin C is well preserved, the other nutrients are also well retained. Higher retention of vitamin C in processed products is highly desired. Herein this chapter reviews the degradation mechanism and kinetics of vitamin C of fruits and vegetables during thermal processing, such as blanching, drying, cooking and frying. It starts with an overview of the functions of vitamin C in human’s health. Then the current status for understanding of the degradation kinetics of vitamin C during thermal processing was outlined, followed by the discussion of its degradation mechanism. At last, potential strategies or alternatives to keep vitamin C are identified and discussed.

Abstract

Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of fungi, a group of organism that is different from fruits and vegetables. They are a rich source of good quality protein having more essential amino acids and vitamins with low calories. There are about six commonly known edible mushrooms throughout the world with button mushroom (Agaricus bisporous) being the most familiar and commercially important variety. Mushroom is a highly perishable product with a shelf life limiting to a few days. Soon after harvest, it starts to undergo physiological disorders like shriveling, wilting, liquefaction, browning, textural as well as weight losses and flavour changes. The main responsible factors for the quality deterioration after harvest are respiration rate, browning, bacterial spoilage of mushrooms, temperature and relative humidity. Because of its limited shelf life under ambient conditions of temperature and humidity, the preservation of mushrooms is a matter of concern. Various techniques have been involved in the extension of shelf life of mushrooms including chemical treatments, cooling, modified and controlled atmospheric storage, radiation, drying etc. Drying is one of the most accepted and effective methods for the long term storage of mushrooms. Mushrooms preserved by drying have a pleasant flavour and are used as an important ingredient in several food formulations including salads, instant soups, meats and rice dishes. Various drying processes like sun drying, hot air drying, freeze drying, vacuum drying etc. can be used for the long term storage of mushrooms. As mushrooms are sensitive to temperature, determining the right drying method is the key for the successful and effective operation of the system. The different operating conditions involved in various methods of drying affect product quality considerably. The effect of drying methods on the process and the quality of the dried mushroom is explained in detail in this chapter.

Abstract

Cocoa and coffee are highly sought after commodity crops in the market owing to the distinct flavor and aroma characteristics. Cocoa beans are mostly used in the manufacturing of chocolates and various types of confectioneries while coffee is mainly consumed in the form of beverages. Both cocoa and coffee need to be dried and roasted in order to produce the flavor precursors which further develop into the desired flavor and aroma in the finished products. This chapter aims to provide an overview of cocoa and coffee processing with particular emphasis on drying and roasting aspects and its impact on product quality.

Abstract

Application of ultrasound is one of the most promising uses of novel technologies in food processing. Use of ultrasound at various stages of drying has resulted in significant decrease in drying time and improvement in quality characteristics of dried products. The chapter discusses the principle behind use of ultrasound, general application in food industry with detailed description of various drying processes and equipments assisted by ultrasound.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

Abstract

Pulse combustors provide an advantageous superposition of unsteady gas flow and high intensity sound waves. Such a combination does not only accelerate drying rates because of increased heat and mass transfer but also allows processing of liquids, pastes and agglomerated solids in a dispersed state due to aerodynamic impact from the high intensity sound wave. Over last decades, applications of pulse combustion in drying have been exploited continuously and different pulse combustion dryers have been designed and fabricated. In pilot tests and technical reports on these dryers, short drying time, high energy efficiency and product quality are generally reported, which cause that pulse combustion drying is regarded as a technology of the future in convective drying.

This chapter attempt to introduce basic knowledge and state-of the art about this emerging technology and summarizes some recent studies in pulse combustion drying and equipment design. Following a concise description of pulse combustion and pulse combustor, the basic types of pulse-combustion dryers are presented, including spray dryers, fluidized bed dryers, impinging dryers, and dryers of special design. The existing commercial applications and pilot test projects are described and potential applications are identified.

Abstract

Increasing global demand for ‘fresh-like’ processed food products has forced food industries to investigate into various minimal processing techniques. Food processing in general has been associated with thermal processing, alone or in various combination with chemical and mechanical preservation and processing methods. However, thermal processing methods are energy intensive in nature and tend to reduce product quality and freshness at the cost of shelf-life gain. Advance technique such as microwave, radio-frequency and freeze drying do maintain the product quality but their implementation at industrial scale involves high operational and maintenance cost. An ideal processing method therefore would be one that can process food products without losing its quality, is energy efficient and is easily scalable. In this chapter, we discuss about ‘Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Drying’, which is can be classified as a minimal processing technique. The heat and mass transfer principles involved in EHD drying have been extensively discussed and so has been the key consideration for designing an EHD drying system.

Abstract

This chapter presents the principle of fluidisation and its use in drying of food materials. Being a convective drying process, capacity and kinetics are limited by process conditions and material properties. The influences are discussed as well as presenting the main equations that describe drying in fluidised beds. The main focus lies on hot gas drying, additionally superheated steam drying as well as atmospheric fluidised bed freeze drying and microwave-assisted fluidised bed drying are presented and discussed.

Abstract

Airflow drying persists as the main dehydration operation. Indeed, the high expense of freeze-drying in term of equipment cost and energy consumption considerably restricts its use and confines its applications to high added value products (pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, etc.). However, airflow drying undergoes fundamental problems such as low operation performance, poor product quality and short reliability of the equipment. The time of drying is long; particularly at the end of the operation, which implies crucial energy consumption. The poor quality of the end product is related to thermal degradation and in particular to the compactness of texture as a result of the phenomena of shrinkage and case hardening. Another main problem common to all drying operations, including freeze-drying, is the safety of the end products. Swell-drying is defined as an operation that combines optimized hot air drying with instant controlled pressure controlled texturing. The improvement of texture, the preservation of sensory and nutritional quality, the possibility of manufacturing expanded granule powders and the reduction of drying time and energy consumption allow considering swell-drying as the most relevant drying process.

1. Introduction

Conservation agriculture (CA) strategies and practices have been developed and promoted to reduce risk and improve natural resource conditions, as well as address the combination of low yields, production risks and poor natural resource conditions. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), CA is an approach to managing agro-ecosystems for improved and sustained productivity, increased profits and food security while preserving and enhancing the resource base and the environment. It is based on enhancing natural biological and ecological processes above and below ground. Interventions such as mechanical soil tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum, and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied at an optimum level and in a way and quantity that does not interfere with or disrupt biological processes (FAO, 2008). 

Abstract

Agriculture is the major sector for the livelihood of the billions of people worldwide. Increasing population and decreasing arable lands are the major concern for the fulfillment of the desired food production. After green revolution more production in the crop is obtained by worldwide. Several insects and pests are responsible for the inhibition of desired production in agriculture. Therefore, pesticides play a major role in the control of destructive insects and pests. After ban of organochlorine pesticides, organophosphorus pesticides has been used vigorously. Beside the effective pest management in agriculture, residual organophosphorus pesticides are more lethal for human and other living creature. Monitoring of these compounds is very much essential in the food and agricultural samples. Chromatographic techniques are well adopted techniques for the hundreds of residual pesticides. Introduction of various analyzers in chromatographic techniques improve the monitoring of the residual pesticides from different samples. Therefore, recent advancement in residual pesticides isolation and chromatographic techniques has been discussed in this book chapter.

Abstract

We are very fortunate to be born in a nation which is blessed with awesome decent variety of natural products, fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses and so forth. The population of India expanded consistentlythat cause a genuine sustenance and shelter problem. The supply of food is not adequate to fulfill the demand of the consumers. This shortage of food is the root for adulteration of foodstuffs by the traders. Food adulteration is a procedure in which the nature of sustenance is brought down either by the addition of inferior quality material or by extraction of valuable ingredient. An adulterant is a chemical substance which should not be contained within other substances (food, beverages) for legal or other reasons. The addition of adulterants is called adulteration. Food is adulterated to increase the quantity and make more profit. The food is sucked of its nutrients and the place where the food is grown is often contaminated. For instance: milkis mixed with water. Vanaspati is utilized as an adulterant for ghee. Adulteration of food is unsafe as it may be toxic and causes serious health hazards to the consumer. To evade this issue government has passed an act which is known as preservation of Food Adulteration Act. It covers security from risks involved due to contamination of poisonous elements. Instead of government efforts the informed and aware consumers will have the capacity to dispense with this issue. So, here in the chapter adulterants their types, effect on human health, laws and control measurement were reviewed and discussed.

Abstract

Consumers increased response to new products with high sensory, organoleptic and nutritional potentials has impelled a search for new substitutes to processing methods. For several years, thermal processing was the main technology for producing safe products with long shelf lives, although in most cases losses of fresh flavors, vitamins, and some physicochemical characteristics were the price of safety and long-term stability. Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing as a non- thermal technique has been proven to inactivate microorganisms with minimal losses of flavor and food quality, possibly making it the answer to present-day consumer demands. In addition, the low processing temperatures used in this non- thermal technology allow the process to be nutrient preserving, energy efficient, which translates into lower costs and fewer environmental impacts. In this chapter, the the configuration of various PEF equipment, their electric configuration and recent application of this technique in processing of foods have been discussed in detail.

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Abstract

Tremendous hike inworld population has increased thrust on the limited resources which has considerably affected the viability of the food. The emerging challenge for policy makers and food scientists is to put forward viable solutions. Utilization of underutilized crops/plants that act as good sources of starch could be explored in a better way for the sustenance of the limited sources like food crops/plants. The demand for starch and the foods containing starch has been increasing continually. Since, the starch in its native form has certain limitations in its functional properties to be used for different applications. Therefore, it becomes important to explore certain technologies which could be used for modification of starch. Among different technologies gamma irradiation ensures food safety while inducing physicochemical changes of the components. Although, the chemical modifications have been used widely so far but the concerns related to the chemical residues left are diminishing their demand. Hence, the physical processes particularly the gamma irradiation process has emerged as an efficient alternative with some benefits over other process like eco-friendly, economical, reliable and safe for altering the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the product. Gamma Irradiation of starch has been successfully employed for the achievement of some desired physico-chemical, biological and functional properties of the foods and other related items. In this chapter, valuable impact of gamma irradiation on the physico-chemical, biological and functional properties of starch has been summarized.

Abstracts

To ensure safe food and adequate sanitation programs, the equipment used for processing of food products must be designed, fabricated, constructed, and installed according to sound hygienic design principles. This ensures the equipment can be adequately cleaned and sanitized, and that surfaces are resistant to daily exposure to corrosive food products and cleaning/sanitizing chemicals. This chapter focuses primarily on fundamental principles of hygienic design, which protect the product from microbial, chemical, and foreign-body contamination. This is followed by a discussion of general aspects of hygienic construction and design of food equipments, the selection of materials of construction and specification of surface finishes, fabrication, installation and cleaning and sanitization. Quality of raw materials or foods ingredients, proper processing, packaging and storage of finished products decides the quality of the food products. Planning for plant and equipment layout, its design, services (water, air, refrigeration, steam), waste disposal etc. are some of the critical factors, which contributes to quality. In addition, the food processing equipment must comply with strict standards and regulations, which are necessary for securing the quality and safety of the food products to the consumers.

Abstract

Micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies affect more than 2 billion people worldwide and are especially prevalent in developing countries including India. Conditions due to vitamin mineral deficiencies account for 7.3 percent of the global disease burden.Iron deficiency (anemia), vitamin A and iodine deficiency disorders continue to be a grim public health problem. Thus, elimination of vitamin and mineral deficiencies is essential to improve the overall health of the masses as well as to sustain economic growth and national development. Food fortification is an effective intervention to deliver vitamin and mineral rich foods to large populations. In addition to the prevention of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, food fortification is an effective measure to raise vitamin and mineral levels by moving the population towards consuming recommended dietary allowances for most micronutrients-making it a long–term and a sustainable strategy. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3 million tonnes and the consumption rate of milk and milk products by all age groups of people are high.Therefore, fortification of milk with mineral and vitamins could be a safe and effective strategy to fight these micronutrient deficiencies.

Abstract

Nutrition and genetics both have very crucial role in human health and in development of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Difference between individuals in response to dietary intervention is a well-known phenomenon in nutrition research (Ordovas, 2008).The effect of dietary changes on phenotypes such as blood cholesterol, body weight and blood pressure can differ significantly between individuals (Ordovas et al., 2007). Various bioprocess i.e. ingestion, absorption, digestion, transport, metabolism and excretion of nutrients and food bioactive components in human body is carried out through proteins such as enzymes, receptors, transporters, ion channels and hormones. Genetic variation leads to altered production and affect functional properties of these proteins. Furthermore nutritional efficacy is also different among different individuals which might be affected by nutritional status. Thus diet and gene expression are interrelated and have a mutual effect on physiology of human body.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.

Abstract

Chitin has been ranked at second position after cellulose as the most abundant natural biopolymer. Chitin has similar chemical structure to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via ß (1–>4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Therefore, Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is amongst the most copious biopolymers on earth and finds wide range of biomedical and industrial applications. It has been approved in 1983 by USDA as a feed additive. Chitin basically is obtained from prawn/crab shells and chemical treatment of chitin produces chitosan. Since supplies of seafood waste are seasonable and variable, so fungi can be used as alternative source for chitosan. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan provide great potential of its utilization in food industry especially dairy industry such as production of dairy products, dairy waste water treatment, extension of shelf life of dairy products etc. In recent years, exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal, thus application of chitinous products in dairy as well as processing aids has received considerable attention. The modified chitosan with greater functional properties has increased application in different dairy foods. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan and their derivatives in a variety of dairy industry applications.

Abstract

Meat is considered to be a highly perishable food commodity because of its biological composition. Thus, to extend its shelf life and maintain its nutritive value, there is an urgent need to find out alternatives for synthetic anti-microbial and anti-oxidants. This will not only serve the purpose of meat product manufacturer’s but will also satisfy the consumers’ demand for minimally processed meat products devoid of synthetic preservatives. This review discusses the natural antimicrobial and anti- oxidants sources viz., various essential oils, their composition and application in different meat and meat products. Essential oils from basil, rosemary, thyme, oregano, ginger, basilica, balm, coriander, rosemary and clove have exhibited a better potential to be used as an antimicrobial agent in meat and meat products. They owe their anti-microbial properties to the phenolic compounds present in them. They dislocate cell membrane and disrupt functionality of bacterial cell membrane and eventually leading to the release of intracellular components. However, essential oils are not widely used due to the pungent and intense aroma imparted to the food, thus there is still need to work out on the novel technologies which can not only increase food shelf life but at the same time, are sensorially acceptable to the consumers.

Abstract

Agro-food industries generate a large amount of by-products and wastes. These byproducts and wastes have a negative impact in terms of the environmental concern due to the increase of pollutant disposal, and industrial sustainability because of high costs related to their management. These byproducts and wastes are rich in minerals, sugars and proteins. The composition and characteristics of wastes from different food processing industries vary and rely upon the production technique and the nature of the product. India is the second largest producer of rice/paddy in the world and the utilization of rice bran is gaining importance. However, a small fraction of these have been utilized. In case of fruits and vegetables, industrial processing of potato generates between 70 and 140 thousand tons of peels worldwide annually. Moreover, 37% of world’s total annual production of banana is shared by India. Hence, to minimize the disposal fees and trash collection new policies and methods have been developed for handling and treatment of wastes and byproducts. This chapter envisages the status of different agro-food industrial byproducts and wastes for the development of different food and non-food products.

Abstract

The interest in the utilization of industrial by-products is increasing day by day and is major reason for exploring different meat, poultry and fish industry waste and optimization of extracting conditions of different valuable compounds. Utilization of these by-products in effective manner can be positive for meat industry economy as well as environmental pollution of the country. Besides the potential revenue losses, non-utilized or underutilized by-products accounts for the extra cost for their disposal. Meat producers are converting these by-products into value added edible and inedible form. Among the most prominent current uses of meat, poultry and fish waste are food ingredients, water treatment, cosmetic and personal care products, biogas/biodiesel, biomedical and pharmaceutical application. Several studies have dealt with the production of several value-added products such as gelatin, collagen, enzymes, specific proteins, bioactive peptides, chitin, chitosan, and pigments fro m the meat industries waste. Recently, in the food and pharmaceutical industry, an increasing number of new applications have been found for products generated from meat, poultry and fish industry waste; in different products as foaming agents, emulsifiers, biodegradable film-forming materials, colloid stabilizers, and microencapsulating agents, in line with the growing trend to replace synthetic agents with more natural ones.

Abstract

India ranks in the world’s five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items. Processing of agricultural produce generates substantial amount of crop residues which can have tremendous value to farmers. However, a large portion of the residues is burned on farm primarily to clear the field from straw and stubble; which affects the environment, soil health and crop yield.The conversion of crop residues to eco-friendly and valuable product like biochar is need of the hour. Biochar is an organic amendment which slowly releases C in the soil, and is stable over the years. Various applications of biochar like reduction in greenhouse gases emission, sequestering C in the soil, increasing crop yield, used as combusting fuel and livestock feedmakes it a promising candidate for sustainable agriculture and environment.

Abstract

Food lost during the production chain is referred to as postharvest loss. Reducing postharvest loss can effectively feed starving mouths while conserving resources and decreasing the pressure to produce more. There are five main areas where postharvest loss can be reduced – harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and retail. New approaches and technologies in each of these areas will increase the amount of food available for human consumption. The total loss due to poor post- harvest processing of agricultural products in India when valued in terms of monetary reflects a tremendous loss in the economy. Annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural produces at national level to be of the order of Rs. 92,651 Crore calculated using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. Deficits in food items or financial loss should not have occurred if postharvest losses were reduced through proper processing and preservation from harvest to consumption. Both the government and private sector need to invest in research so as to improve and modernize post-harvest facilities for attaining more efficient market infrastructure and distribution channels. Research and extension activities have to be closely coordinated particularly in the public sector for the benefit of farmers, traders and consumers.

Pulses are important ingredients of human diet and principal source of protein of high biological value particularly for vegetarians. These are excellent feed for animals endowed with an unique ability of biological nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, soil amelioration, capable to sustain under harsh climate and an integral component of sustainable crop production system. It is expected that by the year 2050 world human population will climb to 9.7 billion, India 1.6 billion and that of Odisha will be more than 5.75 crores. It will be a great challenge by agricultural scientists for assured food security of billions of hungry human mouth with nourishing food especially pulses, oilseeds and other dietary ingredients. Current production of pulses are not sufficient to meet the requirement. In Odisha it is expected to have a shortage of 1.7 lakh tones of pulses towards 2030 if the current rate of production will not increase. The fact is almost similar for nation although India contributes 24 per cent of global pulse production but imports about 2.0 million tones every year. The deficit will further mount as the per capita consumption on dal of an Indian is increasing. It necessitates to increase pulse production which is not happening keeping pace with need (Jena et al., 2015).

In the post-green revolution period, the incessant rice-rice/wheat crop rotation has undoubtedly made the country surplus in cereal production but has marginalized pulses. This has raised serious concern about sustainability of the production system. Recognizing the importance of pulses for meeting dietary requirements of vast vegetarian population on one hand and their role in improving soil health and conserving natural resources on the other, the efforts were made to develop high yielding, short duration and disease resistant varieties of different pulse crops which can help in diversification and intensification of popular cropping systems. As a result, several new cropping systems have been designed, developed and advocated for rainfed and irrigated areas.

Introduction

Rose, acclaimed as the “Queen of Flowers”, is one of the most popular cut flowers in the global floriculture trade. Popularly referred to as ‘Dutch rose’ in the international market, cut rose occupies a prominent place among the cut flowers owing to its exquisite form, size and attractive colours. Apart from cut flower it is used for making various value added products such as rose oil, rose water, garland, gulkhand, rose attar etc and also in landscaping as pot plant and garden plant. The present day rose (Rosa hybrida) combines all desirable qualities such as, productivity, attractiveness of buds, a variety of colours and forms of the typical species of Rosa.

The major cut rose producing countries of the world are the Netherlands, Colombia, Kenya, Israel, Italy, United States, and Japan. In India, roses are mostly grown under cover (poly house) in Nasik, Pune, Hosur, Kalimpong, Darjeeling, Bangalore, Solan, Palampur, Shimla, Srinagar, Delhi, Ludhiana and Calcutta. The roses grown for export should be popular varieties of that region and maintain high quality standards with respect to bud size and stem length and should have lush green leaves and be free of pests and diseases. These high quality standards can be achieved and maintained only when grown inside poly house or greenhouse, which gives protection against inclement weather conditions and pests and diseases.

Introduction

Flowers speak millions of unspoken words. Presenting a bouquet and making arrangements with flowers in most of the drawing rooms, offices, hotels and hospitals have become the style of the day in the fast – moving modern world where there is hardly any time for exchange of sweet memories. Since time immemorial, the importance of such a delicate creation of nature has always been appreciated. Tamil Nadu ranks first among the flower producing states of India, contributing 25% of the country’s flower production with an area of 31, 970 ha under flowers. Of this, around 700 ha are under protected cut flower cultivation. In Nilgiri district alone, it has an area of around 70 ha under protected cut flower production which is inclusive of around 11.2 ha of lilium.

The genus Lilium (Lilium spp.) is a herbaceous flowering plant normally grown from bulbs, about 110 species world over belongs to lily family Liliaceae. It is native of the northern temperate regions. The species in this genus are the true lilies while the other plants with lily in the common name are related to the other groups of plants. Lilies are usually erect leafy stemmed herbs. The majority of species form tunicless scaly underground bulbs from which they produce flowers. The large flowers have three petals along with three sepals, look like petals.

Introduction

Alstroemeria also known as the lily of the Incas, Peruvian lily or Inca lily, has been grown mainly as a cut flower crop. Recently, it has become popular as a garden flower and also as a potted flowering plant. The plants produce beautiful large inflorescence in many different colours viz. lavender, orange, yellow to dark yellow, white, pink, red, purple and bi-colors. Flowers are characterized by black dots at the base of the petals and throats. The cut flowers have a long post harvest life, up-to two weeks. These valuable characteristics have made Alstroemeria one of the top cut flowers at the Dutch Flower Auction Centers. The plants produce high yield and possess an ever blooming habit after flower initiation has occurred but in general most cultivars flower best during spring and early summer. The straight, un-branched shoots emerge from underground rhizomes which also produce enlarged storage roots. It is gaining popularity in Indian flower market due to long stem flowers and prolonged vase life. Recently flower growers have shown great interest about its production as a cut flower crop.

Introduction

Gerbera is one of the most important commercial flowering crops growing in the world as a cut flower as well as garden decoration, which belongs to family compositae and native in South Africa and Asiatic region. Presently, its demand and utility are rising up continuously in India both in urban as well as rural areas throughout the year. Peoples prefer this flower, because of its unparallel diversity in colour and long vase life; whereas farmers took this crop in relation to high margin of profit and long post harvest life over some others flower. Now, people are showing their keen interest towards use of this flower in their daily life and for celebrating a colorful festival. As per report of NHB (2014), total crop area is 820 hactors, where flower marketed of 3.96 and 17.84 MT of loose and cut flowers respectively. The prime producing states in India for gerbera flower production are Karnataka, Maharastra, Assam, Uttrakhand, Telangana, Tamilnadu and West Bengal. There are some constrains identified in gerbera cultivation under protected situation, like initial investment is too much, protocol of the technology is very much restricted, regular supervision is an essential and all local festivals regulates quantity of consumption etc. However, before adopting this technology for implementation as taking part of business, users should upgrade their knowledge by seeing and believing at different production centers. Details about latest technology are summarized under mentioned, which may be helpful to the students and farmers to some extent for ready references.

Importance

Ajwain is an important seed spice and is also useful for its medicinal values. It is a traditional potential herb for curing many ailments in human and animals. It is usually used as a digestive aid, relieves abdominal discomfort due to indigestion and antiseptic. The seeds of ajwain is bitter, pungent and contain 2-4.4% brown coloured oil known as ajwain oil. The main component of this oil is Thymol, which is used as gastrointestinal ailment, lack of appetite and bronchial problems. Thymol is also used in toothpaste and perfumery (Joshi, 2000). Seeds are also used for curing abdominal pains, abdominal tumors and piles (Krishnamoorty and Madalgeri, 1999). In southern parts of India dry ajwain seeds are powdered and soaked in milk, which is then filtered and fed to babies as it relieves colic in babies. It can be used as digestive mixture in large animals.

Importance

Ginger is a perennial herbaceous monocotyledon, usually grown as annual, and is known to human as spice as well as medicinal crop. The word Zingiber is thought to come from the Sanskrit word singabera meaning ‘shaped like a horn’. It probably got its name because the rhizomes look like deer’s antlers. It first appeared in the writings of Confucius in the 5^th century B.C.

The economic part is the underground rhizomes, which is pungent and aromatic. It is valued for its medicinal properties and is useful against gastritis, dyspepsia, cold and cough. It is widely used in food, beverages, confectionery, etc. Baby ginger or young ginger results from early harvesting and is a gourmet quality product with a tender, low-fiber texture and is mostly used for pickling. Rhizome contains proteins, fibre, starch, essential oil, Zingiberol, Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid, Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose. Most ginger varieties have about 3-6% crude fibre, 1.5-3.0% volatile oil and 4-10% oleoresin. The major pungent principle in ginger oleoresin is gingerol. Among the gingerols 6-gingerol, 8gingerol and 10-gingerol are very important in contributing the pungency. Gingerol (Hydroxy methoxy phenyl decanone) on storage gets converted to another compound called shogaol. The age of ginger oleoresin can be assessed based on the shogaol content. Chemically, gingerol is a relative of capsaicin, the compound that gives chilli its spiciness. Cooking ginger transforms gingerol into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.

Abstract

Natural sunlight is the cheapest source available, but for horticulture it is not always attainable in sufficient quantities. Therefore, the use of artificial light has become very common in order to increase production and quality. Under artificial lighting technologies, LED lighting is one of the technology that can help in producing crops and flowers in a more effective and sustainable way around the world. The benefits of LEDs are that the spectrum and intensity can be selected and adjusted, the energy efficiency is higher than most conventional light sources and their small size, durability, long lifetime, cool emitting temperature, and the option to select specific wavelengths for a targeted plant response make LEDs more suitable for plant-based uses than many other light sources. These advantages, coupled with new developments in wavelength availability, light output, and energy conversion efficiency, can bring about a revolution in horticultural lighting. Light quality plays a major role in the appearance and productivity of ornamental and food specialty crop species. Far-red light, for example, is important for stimulating flowering of long-day plants (Deitzer et al., 1979; Downs, 1956) as well as for promoting internode elongation (Morgan and Smith, 1979). Blue light is important for phototropism (Blaauw and Blaauw-Jansen, 1970), for stomatal opening (Schwartz and Zeiger, 1984), and for inhibiting seedling growth on emergence of seedlings from a growth medium (Downs, 1956). The interactions are complex and continue to be unraveled at the molecular level (Devlin et al., 2007), but much of our understanding of these responses comes from studies with narrow-waveband lighting sources, in which LEDs provide obvious advantages. Thus, one potential role of LEDs in horticulture could be to enhance desired characteristics for specific crops. The artificial LED lightings increase the possibility of year-round production of ornamental plants, which will subsequently increase the income of growers related to ornamental industry. Light-emitting diodes pave the way for a better understanding of the interaction between light and pests, diseases, natural enemies and plants, as they make possible the use of very narrow wavelengths. LEDs as an option for reducing the use of growth retardants and obtaining better product quality in ornamental pot plants. Production of secondary metabolites increase with higher blue light ratio. Secondary metabolites production are increased and act against Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and pathogens, precondition the plant for environmental changes so they can cope with stress more efficiently.

Generation of new genetic variability through recombination breeding followed by appropriate selection procedure is one of the key factor for crop improvement. Gain in selection is restricted by correlated response of agronomically desirable as well as undesirable characters. There is a host of examples in various crop species where genes for desirable agronomic traits have been found to be closely linked with those governing undesirable characters (Murthy, 1971; Clegg et al., 1972). Such close linkages delay the realization of the full recombination potential in many crops. The biparental mating or the disruptive mating scheme, finds its importance in the improvement of autgamous speice,s because it increases the probabilities of obtaining useful recombinants as compared to selection without intermating (Hanson, 1959; Jensen, 1970).

In contrast to classical pedigree breeding, random mating population could produce large amounts of variability. This variability can be maintained in the population by the use of recurrent intermating, while the population is improved by selection. According to the standard breeding methodology in self-pollinated crops selection for quantitative characters are generally taken up in early segregating generations. For characters like yield, selection is continued till the material becomes homozygous. Such characters are controlled by large number of genes and a very large population has to be raised to make selection effective. Since most plant breeders could never grow the theoretically required size of population, the recombination is highly restricted. It is likely that many of the valuable genes may be practically lost in the process of advancing the material by continued selfing the generations. Andrus (1963) suggested crossing of selected sibs in early generation for reassembling the genes capable of functioning in a balanced polygenic system.

Among the different biometrical methods available, triple test cross analysis is one of the most efficient designs currently available for investigating the genetic structure of populations. It provides a test of epistasis and in its absence it gives independent and equally precise estimates of additive and dominance genetic components (Mather and Jinks, 1982).

11.1. Statistical analysis

Triple test cross

Jinks and Perkins (1970) method was applied to detect epistasis and estimate additive and dominance components of genetic variance.

India is blessed with wide range of diverse agro climatic conditions, making it an appropriate place for vegetable cultivation, resulting in increasing vegetable production from has increased from 63.8 MT in 1993 to 168.5 million tonnes in 2015-16 and productivity from 12.6 MT/ha to 17.8 MT/ha (www.indiastat.com). Although the production has increased but still the technology used and practices followed is predominantly traditional resulting in low productivity and inconsistent quality and quantity of produce supplies to various markets in the country. The per capita consumption of vegetables in India is very low against WHO standards and FAO recommendation (135 g/day <180 g/day (WHO standards) < 300 g/ day capita (FAO recommendation).

The relative magnitude of different gene effects and an understanding of the mode of inheritance of complex quantitative traits have a direct bearing on the method of hybridization and selection which should be adopted in a specific breeding programme. Useful biometrical methods have been developed by the Birmingham group of scientists, to analyse the genetic architecture in organisms, through the use of first and second degree statistics obtainable from the true breeding inbreds, their first generation crosses and the different types of segregating progenies (Mather, 1949; Hayman, 1958; Gamble, 1962; Mather and Jinks, 1971). Since then this method has been widely used in the genetic analysis of various crops.

The narrow sense heritability estimates were high for days to first flowering, plant height at first flowering, number of leaves at first flowering, plant height at maturity, productive tillers per plant, boot leaf area, 100 grain weight, grain length and grain L/B ratio. These characters may be controlled by additive genetic variance. This indicated that the individual genotype can be evaluated readily from their phenotypic expression. Simple selection would more effective in the sets of materials exhibiting greater additive genetic variability and desirable mean performance. Thus, it merit selection in the next generation. On the other hand, the remaining traits may largely be controlled by non-additive genetic variance or the number of genes controlling these traits may be more, or these traits may largely be influenced by a large number of modifiers or might be largely influenced by environment. As the effects of the environmental variance were generally low, the observed low heritability for the above traits might be due other factors other than environment. These traits are hard to improve by selection. It necessitates progeny testing.

Eswaran (2007) made graphic analysis with the model proposed by Jinks and Hayman (1953). He evolved 30 hybrids from six parents in a diallel fashion. The results are presented in Tables 71-74

Introduction

India is a land of diverse agro climatic zones and each of these zones offer a great potential for cultivation of wide range of crops across all seasons. Vegetables form major and important part of our dietary requirements, which are widely grown in the rural and peri-urban areas. Hi-tech horticulture including protected cultivation of high value and exotic vegetables has been on the increase, targeting high end domestic and export market. Of late, due to the population pressure, fragmentation of land holdings and urbanization has led to decline in cultivable area, more so in urban and peri-urban areas. Production of vegetables under protected cultivation system results in effective use of the land resources, besides being able to increase the production of quality vegetables both for the export and domestic markets by offsetting biotic and abiotic stresses to a great extent that otherwise is prevalent in open cultivation. Under protected cultivation, vegetables are widely grown due to higher productivity and economic feasibility.

Introduction

‘Protected cultivation’ is a method of cultivation of plants or crops in artificial environment (Polyhouse/ Greenhouse/Glasshouse) to protect the plants or crops from the natural calamities viz. wind, hailstorm, excessive radiation, temperature extremes, insect-pests and diseases. For matching ever growing needs of human population in the country, it has become imperative to provide the not just cereals but also fruits, vegetables, flowers and other horticultural products to fulfill their requirements. In the present scenario of perpetual demand of horticultural produce in order to increase their production round the year and shrinking landholdings drastically, protected cultivation is the best alternative and drugery- less approach for using land and other resources more effeciently.Protected cultivation comprised of selection of crop and media, climate control,marketing, post harvest technology, plant protection and irrigation/ fertigation.

In India, states like Karnataka, Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are the best suited for protected cultivation of horticultural crops due to their pleasent climatic conditions. Apart from these states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, Delhi and Jharkhand are also fore runners in adopting protected cultivation. Protected cultivation is a key for sustainable production in the country due to its various ecological regions viz., Western Himalayan region, North eastern Himalayas, Eastern Plateau hill regions, Central Plateau hill regions, Western Plateau hill regions, Southern Plateau hill zone, East coast hill zone, West coast hill regions and Gujarat hill regions (Gupta et al., 2003). Control of light through polycover has become a significant part of horticulture technology because quality, intensity and duration of light is involved in many physiological processes of the plants. A plastic film or fibre glass covering over a green house acts like selective radiation filter which allows solar radiation to pass through but traps radiation emitted by the plants inside the greenhouse which is known as ‘Greenhouse effect’. Carbon dioxide released by the plants at night also trapped, this raises the level of CO₂ there by enhances the photosynthetic activity (Ahmed, 1996).

Eswaran (2007) made genetic analysis of six parents and their 30 hybrids of Okra with the method of analysis proposed by Hayman (1954b). He estimated the various genetic parameters viz., _D?, _F?, H?₁, H?² and Ê as well as the various genetic ratio. The results are presented in Tables 69 and 70.

The estimates of _D? were significant for seven out of ten characters studied. This indicated that the component of variation due to additive genetic variance was important for days to seedling emergence, number of first fruiting node, height of first fruiting node, plant height, days to first picking, number of fruits per plant and fruit weight. These characters could be improved by resorting to simple selection. The estimates of H? ₁and H? ₂were positive and significant for almost all the characters studied. It indicated that there were unequal frequency of alleles i.e., u ¹ v at all the loci, in this context, ‘u’ refers to the frequency of alleles which increase the mean expression of the character and are situated at loci which exhibited dominance. On the other hand, ‘v’ corresponds to the frequency of alleles at loci that decreases the expression of the character. Further proof for the unequal distribution of the alleles over loci was obtained

6.1. Line × tester analysis

A successful approach of crop breeding programme depends on the proper choice of best parents for hybridization and the ideal selection adopted in the early generation. But, the selection of parents for hybridization programme is relatively tough in the case of complex traits like yield and their components as they governed by large number of quantitative genes which are influenced by environments and seasons. Thus, breeders often meet with difficulty to fix in advance the desirable parents which will give superior progenies. In such a situation, knowledge on the nature of gene action on such complex quantitative traits of economic importance is necessary to plan and adopt appropriate selection techniques (Simmonds, 1979) and breeding methodology.

Combining ability analysis gives useful information regarding the selection of parents in terms of the performance of the hybrids. This analysis elucidates the nature and magnitude of various types of gene action involved in the expression of quantitative traits (Dhillon, 1975). Thus, the knowledge of combining ability serves as an useful tool for the selection of plants for hybridization and further exploitation. Combining ability consists of general and specific combining ability.

Sprague and Tatum (1942) defined general combining ability (gca) as the “average performance of a line in hybrid combinations” and specific combining ability (sca) “as those cases in which certain combinations do relatively better of worse than would be expected on the basis of the average performance of the lines involved. The general combining ability provides an indication of the importance of genes of largely additive in nature, while specific combining ability indicates the importance of non-additive gene effects.

Several biometrical techniques are available to estimate the general combining ability of parents and specific combining ability of hybrids. Among them, line × tester analysis is extensively used both in self and cross pollinated crops. The advantage of line × tester analysis is that a large number of inbred lines can be evaluated than diallel analysis. Besides, it provides additional information on the performance of the specific hybrids on gene action in contrast to top cross or polycross. The line × tester analysis is an efficient biometrical approach for assessing the combining ability of parents and hybrids (Kempthorne, 1957).

Genetic architecture of a population is the result of prolonged natural selection. The populations which exist in diverse environments might have been strongly diversified genetically. So, it is necessary to understand the extent and rates of genetic divergence existing between the diversified forms or types. Genetic diversity may be available in improved germplasm or it may exist only in genetically inferior stocks.

Genetic divergence among the parents is important in self pollinated crops because a cross involving genetically diverse parents is likely to produce high heterozygous as well as heterotic effect. In such a cross, more variability could be expected in the segregating generations due to the accumulation of the genes of both the parents. Genetic divergence, as one of the criteria of selection of parents is considered in plant breeding as early as 1962 (Murthy et al., 1962; Timothy, 1963). Later, Joshi and Dhawan (1966), Murthy and Arunachalam (1966), Arunachalam et al. (1984) and Lefort-Buson (1987) also stated that for exploiting heterosis as a means of increasing production, it is necessary to have parents of maximum divergence. The more diverse the parents, more is the chance of pronounced heterotic effects and increased spectrum of variability in the segregating generations.

The availability of statistical tools to quantitatively measure the genetic divergence between two or more populations and the relative contribution of individual characters to the total divergence have permitted to trace the evolutionary patterns in some crops such as rice and tobacco and in choosing the parents for hybridization in crop plants (Rao, 1958; Blackith, 1960; Morishima and Oka, 1960; Murthy et al., 1962). Among the several statistical methods developed for measuring the divergence between the populations, multivariate analysis (D² statistic) developed by Mahalanobis in 1936, has been found to be a potent tool. Mahalanbobis’s D² statistic is an effective tool in quantifying the degree of divergence at genetic level and provides a quantitative measure of the association between geographic and genetic diversity based on generalized distance. It is now known that the estimates of genetic divergence are also influenced by environments and seasons. Therefore, if the divergence analysis is conducted in a number of seasons and parents are selected on the basis of consistent divergence over the seasons, the problem of influence of seasons on divergence analysis can be largely overcome.