eChapters

Last few decades have witnessed an increasing number of pets attending clinics/hospitals for cardiac care because of changed life style of owners as well as pets, more awareness of the owners and an increase in number of veterinary medical specialist with better diagnostic facilities. Cardiac failure and cardiac arrest are the two important outcome of cardiac diseases with variable treatment result. Heart functioning is affected not only in primary diseases of heart but also in diseases of organs other than the heart. Without correct diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities, treatment may be futile with a fatal outcome. Nowadays diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities is facilitated with the aid of modern diagnostic technology.

Almost all imaging techniques employed in human medicine are being followed in canine medicine but radiography and ultrasonography ( abdominal and cardiac) are the most commonly used clinical diagnostic techniques. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclear techniques are also being used in the teaching establishments.

Radiography

Use of radiography (Figure 42) as a diagnostic technique is wide spread in canine and feline medicine across the world. It is considered the first step in evaluating the skeleton, thorax and abdomen. For evaluating the abdomen, radiography is considered as complimentary to sonography. Canine practice is more like pediatrics requiring assistant to control the patients (dog sand cats). No anesthesia or sedation is generally required for radiography. But if the patient has painful lesion such as fracture or luxation, suitable anesthesia / sedation should be used for making the animal cooperative during radiography for better visualization of the lesions.

Electrocardiography-A noninvasive Technique

Electrocardiography is a non-invasive diagnostic technique routinely used to examine the electrical activity of the heart in health and diseases. It is an important tool for the clinical evaluation of the heart. The technique provides important information regarding heart rate, heart rhythm, impulse formation and its conduction. Heart size can also be assessed to some extent in humans and dogs. The process of electrocardiography leads to generation of an electrocardiogram as a consequence of depolarization and repolarization of heart muscle cells during each heartbeat.

It is an easy, non-invasive, bed side technique for continuous monitoring the saturation of oxygen bound to hemoglobin (SpO2). The technique was invented by Dr. Takuo Aoyagi in 1974 to measure oxygen saturation in the blood. During recent years it has shown great utility in patient care. The oxygen saturation of hemoglobin provides a measure of cardio-respiratory functioning. Pulse oximeters generally used in humans are not appropriate for the use in dogs and cats as these are designed to apply on fingers and programmed with the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve for humans.

Indications

Pulse oximetry is an important standard technique of patient care in cases of heart failure, respiratory failure, multiple organ failure, critical care, emergency, accident and during anesthesia.

Catheterization is done for both diagnostic as well as therapeutic purpose. As a diagnostic technique it is employed to collect urine samples, prostatic wash and suction biopsy. As a therapeutic technique it is used for the treatment of urine retention, obstruction and for monitoring urine output. Pneumocystography is a contrast radiography. It is being employed to distinguish the urinary bladder from other organs and to visualize the details of the bladder.

Catheterization

An appropriate catheter needs to be selected as per the requirement (purpose of catheterization and duration of catheterization). A soft, silicone flexible catheter is appropriate for indwelling purpose. Whereas a rigid catheter is more desirable to unblock a small calculi and collecting samples for diagnostic purpose. Small size catheters are best in order to minimize urethral trauma.

Centesis is a surgical puncture or perforation into body cavity or structure usually done to aspirate fluid, air or tissue. The medical purpose of puncturing body cavities is not only to obtain fluid sample for diagnostic purpose but also to remove excessive fluid for therapeutic purpose for alleviating the respiratory distress owing to excessive fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity, pleural cavity or pericardial sac. This procedure is usually done to get fluid from abdominal cavity, thoracic cavity, pericardial sac or joint capsule and is aptly known as abdominocentesis, thoracentesis, pericardiocentesis or arthrocentesis respectively.

Veterinarian’s primary responsibility towards patients and their owners is to establish a correct diagnosis as it is a pre-requisite for rational, effective, eco-friendly and cheap treatment. Diagnosis of a disease is the crux of health problems. An accurate and prompt diagnosis helps in deciding effective treatment options, whereas incorrect and delayed diagnosis often leads to failure in disease outcome.

Diagnosis

The word “diagnosis” is derived from the Greek word “gnosis” that means knowledge. The diagnosis is not only the identification of the disease but also of disease process correlating with clinical manifestations with an understanding of disease etiology and its influence on the structure and function of the body. In fact making diagnosis is itself a process of ascertaining the nature of the disease or disorder from its signs and symptoms differentiating it from similar looking conditions.

Introduction

Data Analysis is an approach to analyse data sets to summarise their main characteristics and extract valid information. The importance of hypothesis is generally recognised more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. As it is not possible to work on the whole population, each group is represented only by a sample of observations and if another sample is drawn, the numerical values would change. This variation between different samples drawn from the same population cannot be eliminated or reduced fully. One is supposed to draw inferences in the presence of the sampling f luctuations. Statistical tools and techniques are applied to check whether the observed differences are real significant differences or non- significant ones.

Introduction

Soil has been advocated since the inception of nurseries as the storehouse of almost all the essential plant nutrients. Besides, it is treated as a living entity as it harbours diverse types of innumerable beneficial microorganisms, especially the beneficial genera of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae etc. In 1885, the German botanist, Albert Frank, introduced the Greek word ‘mycorrhiza’, which literally means ‘fungus root’. These fungi form a beneficial symbiotic association with the roots of higher plants and perform the functions of root hair. This symbiotic association has been reported to promote plant growth and health by playing the role of biofertiliser and bioprotectant, respectively.

The management of diseases and pests is a major challenge. Monoculture, excess use of fertilisers, high- yielding varieties, climate change etc have not only intensified plant diseases, but also given rise to new diseases or intensified those diseases which were earlier considered of minor importance. Although decades of research have given rise to certain promising organic and biological alternatives to chemical disease management, due to the lack of proper attention of researchers worldwide, the organic and biological disease management technologies are still not very popular.

Livelihood connotes the means, activities, entitlements and assets by which people make a living, attempt to meet their various consumption and economic necessities, cope with uncertainties and respond to new opportunities (De Haan and Zoomers, 2003).

Livelihood is a set of economic activities, involving self-employment and/ or wage- employment by using one’s endowments (human and material) to generate adequate resources (cash and non-cash) for meeting the requirements of self and the household.

Ideally, a livelihood should keep a person meaningfully and gainfully occupied in a sustainable manner with dignity

Livelihood, therefore, goes far beyond generating income. A livelihood is much more than employment.

Soil-borne plant pathogens cause significant losses in the nursery plantation of agricultural, horticultural and forestry plantation stands. These pathogens can survive in the soil for many years through their resistant structures. Besides, the diseases caused by them are difficult to predict. Soil factors like soil type, texture, pH, moisture, temperature, level of organic matter and nutrient content influence the activity of soil-borne pathogens and diseases. In order to survive successfully, these pathogens compete with others for nutrition, space and other requirements. Understanding the dynamics of these pathogens and other microbial populations in the soil in relation to environmental conditions is essential for the successful management of these diseases.

Introduction

A forest is a complex ecosystem, predominantly composed of trees and shrubs, which usually form a closed canopy. They form a storehouse of a large variety of life forms such as plants, mammals, birds, insects, reptiles etc., besides being the most important habitat of the microorganisms and fungi, which do the important work of decomposing dead organic matter, thereby enriching the soil. Nearly 4 billion hectares of forests cover the earth’s surface, roughly 30% of its total land area. The forest ecosystem has two components- abiotic and biotic. Climate and soil type form a part of the non-living component and the living component includes plants, animals and other life forms. Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and herbs in the forest.

Introduction

Forest trees constitute ~82% of the continental biomass and harbour >50% of the terrestrial biodiversity. They also help to mitigate climate change, and provide a wide range of products that meet human needs, including wood, biomass, paper, fuel and biomaterials. Field-grown trees are routinely exposed to environmental stress. Current and predicted climatic conditions, such as prolonged drought, increased salinisation of soil and water and low temperature episodes pose a serious threat to forest productivity worldwide, affecting tree growth and survival. According to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, these stresses will increase in the near future because of global climate change.

Introduction

Land is one of the most important resources on which human beings depend. The rate of soil degradation is continuously increasing with the advancement of science and technology, industrial expansion, urbanisation and population explosion. The most important cause of land degradation is the destruction of forests and other vegetation in sloping lands, riverbanks and other areas sensitive to damage (Pramod and Mohapatra, 2012). Anthropogenic activities like over grazing, wood cutting and burning have intensified land degradation, resulting in soil deterioration all over the world (Jin, 2002). Vegetation acts as a protective cover against the forces of wind and water, protecting the soil from being washed or blown away and preserving the physical and hydrographic balance of nature (Jain and Singh, 1998).

Introduction

Agroforestry denotes a sustainable land and crop management system that strives to increase yields on a continuing basis, by combining the production of woody forestry crops (including fruit and other tree crops) with arable or field crops and/or animals, simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land and applying management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population. In Jammu and Kashmir, agroforestry systems have been practiced since centuries and passed from generation to generation. These systems were built on the foundation of protecting and planting trees. These systems in the past have made the hill people self- sufficient and well- nourished.

Apricot is an important fruit grown in the dry temperate and mild-hill regions of India. The fruit belongs to the family Rosaceae and genus Prunus. The original apricots are native to China, whereas wild apricot, which is known as ‘Zardalu’, is indigenous to India. Wild apricots are found at a low altitude of 1500 m and as high as 4000 m a s l. The cold hardy trees are hardier than peach and almond and can tolerate winter temperatures as low as -30ºC. They are drought- tolerant and can be grown in a variety of soils, but deep, fertile and well- drained loamy soil with a pH value of 6.0 to 6.8 is suitable for their growth and development. Apricots are found the world over at low altitudes of 150 m and as high as 4000 m a s l.

Introduction

The term ‘multipurpose trees’ covers all woody perennials used in agroforestry. Many authors have given many definitions of MPTs and MPTS. Burley and von Carlowitz (1984) reviewed many definitions and gave a synthesised definition which states that “multipurpose trees and shrubs (MPTS) are those which are deliberately grown and kept and managed for preferably more than one intended use, usually economically and/or ecologically motivated major products and / or services in any multipurpose land use systems, especially agroforestry systems”. The Forestry /Fuelwood Research Development Project (1992) precisely defined ‘multipurpose trees’ (MPTs) to mean tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant crop or function on the farm.

Conifers are valuable natural resources of the country, which contribute substantially to its socio-economic development by providing goods and services to the people and industry. They generate considerable revenue and also play a major role in enhancing the quality of the environment by influencing the basic life support system. Unfortunately, however, they have been subjected to over- exploitation and biotic pressure in the last many years, thereby threatening the very existence of some species such as yew, chilgoza pine etc. The genus Pinus is, in fact, one of the largest and most divergent of the coniferous genera, comprising about 95 species and numerous other varieties and hybrids. They are distributed widely in the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the temperate and cold climates.

Vermicompost is a nutrient-rich, microbiologically-active organic amendment that results from the interaction between earthworms and microorganisms during the breakdown of organic matter. It is a stabilised, finely divided peat-like material with a low C:N ratio, high porosity and high water-holding capacity, in which, most nutrients are present in forms that are readily taken up by plants. Earthworms act as mechanical blenders, and by fragmenting the organic matter, they modify its physical and chemical status by gradually reducing the ratio of C:N and increasing the surface area exposed to microorganisms, thus making it much more favourable for microbial activity and further decomposition.