eChapters

Camel Nomenclature Family: Camelidae Order: artiodactyla (even –toed ungulates) Suborder: Tylopoda (Pad on foot) The family Camelidae includes two genera: Camelus and Lama The genus Camelus consists of two species namely. Camelus dromedarius (unicorn or dromedary) with habitat in dry, hot, arid areas of Africa, Asia and Australia and Camelus bactrianus Double-humped or Bactrian) habitat in cold, dry areas of the central Palearctic Ecozone. These two species are commonly called Old World camels. The Species belonging to the genus Lama are Lama vicugna  Vicunaand Lama guanaco guanaco, Lama glama (llamaand Lama pacos alpaca . These four Species are called New World camels and have their habitat in South America Camels are considered a “ship of the desert” as a means of transport and Towing ability in the desert. The camel also played an important role in civil law and order, defense and battles from antiquity to the presen

Man have used different animals like cattle, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules, yak, camel and elephants for different kinds of work. Draft animals evolved during course of time have advantages of stability, sustainability and environmental friendliness. Different animals have different draught capacities for performing different types of work. The approximate power developed by various animals in terms of horse power are- Horse-1.0: Bullock-0.74: Buffalo-0.75: Cow-0.45: Maule-0.75: Donkey- 0.35. Draught developed by the animal is generally proportional to its body weight. Draught ability: Work is done when force is exerted to move an object over a distance. Work in the strict sense of “Force exerted x distance through which the force is moved”. Work performed by animals can be measured by quantifying their capacity to generate power. Draught Power (W) = Draught (N) x Speed (m/s) Management of different working animals 1. Cattle and Buffalo Bullocks: they are used for various operations like ploughing, harrowing, threshing, harvesting, for lifting water and for transporting people and agricultural produce.  The average speed of a pair of bullocks pulling a cart is around 4-5 km per hour. If not overdriven, they can travel 25-30 km or even 40 km in favorable condition. Atmospheric 

India enjoys one of the largest livestock wealth in the world India has continued to experience an increasing growth in its livestock sector. Between 2010-11 and 2019-20, gross valueadded (GVa) from livestock sector grew at an extraordinary rate of 7.6% annually. Among the livestock species, pig finds an important place as it being reared by socio-economically weaker sections of the rural India) Pig as compared to other livestock species has a great potential to contribute to faster economic return, because of certain important inherent traits like high fecundity, better-feed conversion efficiency, early maturity and short generation interval. Pig farming requires small investment on its housing and equipment. It has immense potential to ensure nutritional and economic security for the weaker sections of the society.The pig grows fast and is a prolific breeder, farrowing 10-12 piglets at a time. It is capable of producing two litters per year under good management conditions. The carcase yield is high (65 -80% of live weight). Pigs convert inedible feeds, forages, and certain grain by products into valuable nutrition’s mean. The faeces of pigs are useful in maintaining soil fertility. Pig population According to the 20 th Livestock census of India pigs comprises 1.7 % to the total livestock population (http://dahd.nic.in). The total Pigs in the country are 9.06 million in the current Census, declined by 12.03% over the previous Census. Out of the total pigs 20.98% are either exotic or crossbred

There are many migratory, semi-migratory and sedentary shepherd communities in India with sheep rearing along with goats as the main livelihood)Besides scores of land less wages-earning families keep small numbers of goats for crucial supplementary income. Sheep and goat farming, due to its quicker and better returns on investment provides an additional source of income to farmers who normally depend on crops for their livelihood) Thus these animals fit in ideally in a mixed farming system. In India, goats and sheep are mostly maintained under extensive system which includes migratory, transhumance, free range, grazing community pastures, stubbles of cropped lands supplemented with crop residues and tree-lopping. Although a number of management systems are in practices varying from region to region these may be conveniently divided in to extensive, Semiintensive and Intensive systems.

It appears that cattle were domesticated prior to 4000b)c)From 1961 to 2021, the amount of milk produced worldwide has almost tripled, reaching 918 million tonnes. Production of milk is carried out by about 150 million households worldwide. Smallholders produce the majority of the milk in developing nations, and milk production supports nutrition, food security, and household livelihoods. For small-scale farmers, milk offers comparatively quick returns and is a significant source of revenue. Small-scale farmers using native or local cattle breeds produce the majority of the milk in developing nations; however, to meet the growing demand for milk and milk products in peri-urban areas, more improved or cross-bred cattle are being used) India is an agricultural country that contributes significantly to the economy. Animal husbandry is an adjunct to agriculture and has vital livestock resources, with cattle and buffalo playing an important role in improving the socio-economic status through contributions to milk, meat, hides, and draft power for agricultural operations. India is one of the world’s top milk producers contributing 24 percent of global milk production and having a large number of indigenous

The term “Economics” is derived from the Greek words ‘OIKOS’ and ‘NOMAS’ or ‘NEMEIN’. ‘Oikos’ means house hold and ‘Nomas’ or ‘Nemein’ means management. So, in its original sense-economics means house hold management; i.e. satisfying as many wants of the house hold or family as possible by allocating the limited resources at the disposal of the family wisely among different wants. In the modern and practical sense Economics means management of day-to-day problems arising from unlimited wants and limited resources by wisely allocating limited resources to satisfy maximum wants. Divisions or approach of Economics There are two approaches a) Traditional approach and Modern approach. Traditional approach is divided into six main divisions, viz., (i) Production, (ii) Distribution, (iii) Exchange, (iv) Consumption, (v) public finance and (vi) economic planning. Modern approach studied under (i) Income Theory or Macro Economics; and (ii) Price Theory or Micro Economics, deals with the study

Livestock plays a vital role in any country’s economy as animals are a source of livelihood for people, providing milk, meat, and fur, and are used for agricultural work. Hence, the loss of animals due to disease or any other reason results in loss of wealth, livelihood, and nutrition. In view of this, management of mortality on farms is of utmost importance. There are different ways to manage and dispose of dead animals. The acceptable methods to manage mortality include composting, rendering, incineration, landfills, burial, and disposal pits. Composting is one of the options for managing mortality on farms. Composting is the decomposing of carcasses by natural processes, viz the use of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms to convert organic matter into a stable product called compost. Composting involves the degradation of the carcass by anaerobic bacteria to convert it into liquid material with odor and gases such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia)The anaerobic process produces heat that kills many viruses and bacteria and allows the growth of only heat-tolerant bacteria)The temperature continues to rise and peaks between 130 to 160 0F. Composting requires a source of energy

Food is defined as any substance, whether processed, semi processed or raw, that is intended for human consumption as well as the inedible parts associated with food that are not intended to be consumed by humans. Food waste is defined as any food and inedible parts of food, removed from the food supply chain that can be recovered or disposed, whereas, food loss is defined as food that unintentionally undergoes deterioration in quality or quantity as a result of food spills, spoils, bruising, wilting or other damages alike owing to infrastructure limitations at the production, storage, processing and distribution stages of food lifecycle. Global food waste management is an issue of concern that requires attention from various stakeholders having diverse expertise. According to statistics, about one third of the food produced for human consumption is either lost or wasted. Globally, the cost of food waste accounts for USD 2.6 trillion, of that USD 1trillion is incurred from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, increased conflicts and loss of livelihood owing to issues like soil erosion, nutrient loss, reduced yields, wind erosion and pesticide exposure.

Manure can be a) solid manure, feed waste, soiled bedding, etc. and b) liquid – urine and detergent Water. Ideally, solid manure is usually collected and removed twice daily. India has about 535.78 million livestock and the amount of production of animal waste amounts to about 3 million tons per year. Together farm-level livestock waste includes manure, urine, placenta, bedding,Feed waste, milk house waste etc. These animal wastes are the biggest source of harmful gases, harmful pathogens and odors and therefore public health and environmental concerns. Livestock waste contains many useful substances components that, if recycled effectively, can be used as fertilizer for crops, food for animals. Economic savings are the biggest benefit of waste management achieved through improvements in human health and the environment, leading to higher productivity, lower medical costs, etc ultimate increase in farmers’ income. The animal waste is a major source of harmful gases, harmful pathogens, etc Odor;

Livestock transportation is a process of carrying animal from one place to another by different means of transportation. It is a stressful, threating and not familiar event of domestic animals. Livestock is transported for many reasons like marketing, slaughter, changing of owner, re-stocking and desirable grazing area)Animals who are transported for slaughter are stressful due to various component like loading, unloading, restraining, unfavorable weather condition, thrist, hunger. During transportation there are many rules and regulation by different countries which should be strictly implemented) Cattle and other animal species should be transported with partition. Birds and lab animals are transported in cages or any airy cartridge or basket. During transportation food and water should be withheld for 24 hours. if the transportation is more than 24 hours animal should be watered and fed in transit.

Introduction Colostrum feeding • Colostrum is rich source of gamma globulins (antibodies), vitamins and minerals • Colostrum Temp.: 99ºF-102ºF • Colostrum feeding: first 3-5 days. • Whole milk: after 5 days • Feed the total amount of milk at 3 or 4 equal intervals up to the age of 7 days and then twice daily • Quantity of colostrum: 10 % of body weight. • Overfeeding: calf scour/diarrhea. • Around 0.5% of a cow’s yearly milk production is made up of colostrum. • After birth, the amount of immunoglobulins that can be absorbed from colostrum drops by 1/3 as soon as 6 hours, by 2/3 after 12 hours, and an intestinal barrier forms after 24 hours. • Colostrum must be given in sufficient amounts to the newborn calf because during the first 24 hours after parturition, the permeability of the stomach and the concentration of immunoglobulins drop sharply. • Cow colostrum must meet minimum requirements for both immunological and bacteriological characteristics:

Raising healthy and productive animals is a cornerstone of successful livestock farming. Whether the goal is milk production, meat, draught power or breeding, the foundation of a thriving animal enterprise lies in appropriate general management and feeding practices that consider the animal’s stage of growth, reproductive status and work requirements. Each class of animal—calves, heifers, pregnant and lactating females, dry animals, bulls and working animals—has unique physiological needs that must be addressed through specialized care and nutrition. Modern animal husbandry aims not just at higher productivity but also at ensuring animal welfare, sustainability and profitability. Scientific and stage-specific practices improve the animals' lifetime performance and reduce mortality, disease incidence and reproductive failure. In this context, proper rearing practices are not merely a routine, but a strategic necessity. The calf represents the future of the herd. Ensuring its survival, growth and development is crucial for long-term productivity

Introduction Care and management of calf • Begins before its birth. • Good dairy herds are raised rather than purchased. • Dam should be dried 6-8 weeks before expected calving and should be fed well. • Underfed dam will give weak and small calves. Steps of calf management 1.  Removal of mucous • Immediately after birth:  removal of mucous or phlegm from nostril, mouth, eyes & ears for normal breathing. • Rub and dry the calf with a dry cloth or gunny bag • If cow not licking: sprinkle a little common salt on calf’s body. • If calf does not start breathing: Provide artificial respiration by: • Compressing and relaxing the chest with hands • Swinging • Inserting twig in nostril 2.  Ligation of naval cord • Cutting of naval cord: ligate-2.5cm & cutting-1cm below.

The Convention on Biotechnology has defined biotechnology as “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or process for specific use”. The global food requirement is increasing with growing population, so the productivity gap could be filled by improving genetic health. Animal breeding focuses on genetic improvement through biotechnological and genomic approaches. Genetic progress is influenced by the type of biotechnology such as selection accuracy, genetic interval, intensity of selection, genetic variance. It helps to improve animal production, treatment of genetic disorders, production of transgenic animals resistant to diseases, vaccine production and also to maintain genetic diversity for endangered species. Genomic selection is a type of marker assisted selection. It improves the genetic gain by decreasing genetic interval and improving reliability. These novel approaches have high potential in animal breeding, if executed judiciously may provide practical benefits to mankind. The magnitude of genetic improvement of livestock species

The study of general reproduction and reproductive performance in animals is a vast and intricate field that spans across various species, habitats, and biological systems. Reproduction is a fundamental biological process that ensures the continuity of life across generations. It involves a series of complex physiological and behavioural events, from mating and fertilization to gestation and birth. The general reproduction and reproductive performance in domesticated animals is a fascinating and complex field that has significant implications for various aspects of human society, including agriculture, pet ownership, and conservation efforts. Domesticated animals encompass a wide range of species, from farm animals such as cows and chickens to pets like dogs and cats, and even animals kept for conservation or recreational purposes, such as horses and certain bird species. Each of these species has unique reproductive systems and cycles, and understanding these is crucial for effective management and care. For instance, the gestation period for dogs is typically around two months, while for horses, it’s closer to a year. Similarly, some birds, like parrots, may lay eggs only once or twice a year

Current status of feed and fodder availability in India Globally India ranks 1st in terms of total livestock (535.78 million) and buffalo population in the world (109.85 million), 2nd in cattle (192.49 million), goat (148.88 million) and 3rd in sheep population. So, the availability of adequate quantity and quality feed and fodder resources for livestock is essential for improving livestock productivity. Grazing lands and fodder cultivation areas are gradually dwindling either due to degradation or restriction for livestock grazing. Total area under fodder cultivation is around 8.4 mha (5.23%) which is almost static for the past two decades. Even though feed and fodder availability has improved in the last decade still gap exists with demand and availability of fodder during lean periods and abnormal weather conditions like droughts/floods. At present, India faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder (GF), 10.95% dry crop residues and 44% concentrate feeds. In India, open forest cover is around 29 million hectares (mha), which can be further utilized for growing fodder trees without affecting standing trees, mostly as an under- storey on the partially shaded ground Area under fodder production Sorghum (2.6 M ha) and Egyptian clover (1.9 M ha) account for roughly 54% of the total cultivated fodder area in the kharif and

Selection is a phenomenon of giving preference to certain individuals in a population to reproduce over other individuals that are deprived of the opportunity to reproduce. In common parlance, it is the process to choose individuals from the herd that are going to produce the next generation and influence the performance of the herd. Performance of a herd is guided by the genes of the parents. In a herd, males give rise to more off springs and hence selection of males is an opportunity to boost cattle husbandry. The contribution of males to the inheritance of polygenic traits is equal with that of females. Hence, it is central to pay equal emphasis while selecting males and females. Selection of sire is more important than dam selection due to numerous reasons. The first reason is that a sire produces more numbers of progenies compared to one dam. Since a sire is called “half the herd”, it determines the performance of the herd. Modern initiatives like artificial insemination and frozen semen technology has further extended the use of sire and highlights the importance of sire selection. Artificial insemination has allowed the superior traits to reach different corners of the globe and this has benefitted the present generation at large. Frozen semen technology together with artificial insemination is milestone to the field of genetics and breeding. It is now possible to

Animal flesh when consumed as food is known as meat. Meat was introduced into man’s diet early on during Stone Age when they were hunter and gatherer. Humans seem evolved to a meat diet based on the structure of teeth and the unsophisticated nature of our digestive system. Presently man used many varieties of animals’ species for producing meat however domesticated cattle, goat, sheep, buffalo, pig and poultry continue to be major contributor of meat to the ever increasing human population. Meat is one of the best and major sources of protein for human, meat protein content all the essential amino acid in required quantity and is easily assimilated by human guts. Fat is essential for development of flavor; at least the bare minimum is desire. Besides this it also has all the other crucial nutrients in smaller amount.  The essential elements of good quality meat are firm texture, moderate fat content, tender, good flavour, juiciness and normal meat odor, and to produce such meat it require proper care and management of meat animal. Hence, right and efficient management is to be given to the animals for producing better meat quality. Management broadly includes selection of genetically superior animals,

Genetic characterization using DNA markers is a cutting edge technology that makes it possible to study animal variability at basic level. A genetic marker can be any stable and inherited variation which is measurable or detectable by a suitable method and can be used subsequently to detect the presence of a specific genotype or phenotype other than itself, which otherwise is non-measurable of very difficult to detect. Such variations exist at morphology, chromosome, biochemistry or DNA levels that can serve as genetic markers. Molecular markers are the markers that reveal variations at the DNA sequence level. The polymorphisms observed at the DNA sequence has many applications which include percentage determination, genetic distance estimation and evolution, determination of individual identity, identification of disease carrier (heterozygous) animals, determination of twin zygosity and freemartinism, gene mapping, marker assisted selection (MAS), sex determination, DNA fingerprinting and transgenic breeding. Gene mapping is a tool to identify the genes responsible for specific traits.  The genetic map is constructed from linkage relationship based on the frequency of meiotic exchange (amount of recombination) among linked traits. Genetic map helps

Livestock sector is an important subsector of the agriculture of Indian economy. It forms an important livelihood activity for most of the farmers, supporting agriculture in the form of critical inputs, contributing to the household, supplementing incomes, offering employment opportunities, and finally it acts as a supplementary and complementary enterprise. Livestock plays a vital role in the economic development of the country. Livestock Sector has continuously been growing and contributed 4.90% (at constant prices) of total GVA (Gross Value Added) in 2020-21 (Annual Report, 2021-2022). India ranks first among the world’s milk producing nations, achieving an annual production of 230.58 million tonnes of milk and with per capita availability of 459 gms/day during the year 2022-23 (Annual Report, 2022-2023). In India, livestock population includes cattle (193.46 million), buffalo (109.85 million), sheep (74.26 million) and goat (148.88 million) (20 th Livestock Census, 2019). The rapidly expanding demand for livestock products offers an opportunity as well as a challenge to livestock production. The livestock sector is moving towards specialization with the increasing involvement