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Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a premium fruit of the world. It is a typical temperate fruit and main fruit crop of J&K State. The area under this fruit in J&K State is 1,62,971 hectares with an annual production of 17,26,834 metric tones. The acreage under this fruit crop in Jammu Division is 18,146 hectares and the annual production is 38,421 metric tones. In Jammu Division, apple is being grown in upper areas of Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban, Poonch, Udhampur, Reasi, Kathua and Rajouri districts.

Climate and soil

Apple is a typical temperate fruit crop requiring 1000-1600 hours of rest period below 7^oC. The average temperature during growing season should be 21⁰C to 24⁰C. Sunshine is essential for colour development of the fruit. In general, a cool climate with low winter temperature and little rainfall in summer is most suitable for apple cultivation.

Apple is grown on a wide range of soils. However, a well drained slightly acidic (about 6.5 -6.7 pH) loam soil with good depth (more than 45 cm) is ideal for apple cultivation. Apple can’t tolerate wet field, and water logging may cause collar rot and death of trees.

Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) is one of the ancient and common fruits, indigenous to India. It is growing in wild, semi wild and cultivated forms all over the country in sub-tropical and tropical areas. Area under ber in J&K is 5,376 hectare with annual production of 10,779 metric tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Ber plant is hardy and can grow successfully even under poor soil and unfavourable climatic conditions, where most other fruit trees fail to grow. It prefers a hot and dry climate for its successful cultivation, but needs adequate water during its first fruiting season. It can be grown up to an elevation of 1000 meters above sea level. Excessive atmospheric humidity seems to be a limiting factor in its successful fruiting.

The ber tree develops a deep tap root system with in a short period of its growth and as such adopts itself to wide variety of soils. However, deep sandyloam soils appear to be better for its plantations. It is well known in its ability to thrive under adverse conditions of salinity, drought and water logging.

Citrus (Citrus spp.) is one of the most important fruits grown in sub-tropical and foot hill regions of Jammu province (Kathua, Hiranagar, Samba, Jammu, Akhnoor, parts of Basohli, Nowshera, Ramnagar, Ramban and Udhampur) upto an elevation of 800 m amsl. The most important commercial citrus fruits in Jammu region are kinnow mandarin, sweet orange, grapefruit, lemon and lime. The area under citrus fruits in Jammu division of state is 14,542 ha with an annual production of 34,191 metric tones.

Climate and soil

Citrus plants being sub-tropical cannot with stand extended cold period. Temperature below 3^oC and above 40^oC are injurious to the citrus. Hot winds and excessive heat during flowering and fruit set cause fruit drop and sun burning. These are the light loving crops.

Citrus fruits thrive well in deep, loose, well aerated soils with the pH of 5.5 to 6.2 devoid of any hard pan layers of calcium carbonate in the rooting zone up to 150 cm. High water table and poor drainage system are quite unsuitable for citrus fruits which cause drying of roots and nutritional imbalance, respectively.

Guava (Psidium guajava), the apple of tropics, is one of the most common fruits in India. It is the fourth most important fruit in area and production after mango, banana and citrus. Being hardy, it gives assured crop even with little care, and is good for rainfed areas also. This fruit is popularly being grown in sub-tropical regions of Jammu on 2480 ha with annual production of 9153 MT.

Climate and Soil

Guava is successfully grown under tropical and sub-tropical climate. In areas with distinct winter season, the yield tends to increase and quality improves. It can be grown upto an altitude of 1515 m above mean sea level. Older plants can tolerate drought. High temperature at the time of fruit development can cause fruit drop.

Guava trees are very hardy and can thrive on all types of soils, but are sensitive to water logging. The best soils are deep, loamy and well drained.

The litchi (Litchi chinensis) is a delicious juicy fruit of excellent quality. It is liked very much as table fruit. Presently, litchi occupies 940 ha area in Jammu region with an annual production of 2315 MT.

Climate and Soil

Litchi being a sub-tropical fruit thrives best under warm humid sub-tropical climate. However, frost in winter and hot winds in summer limits its growth and production. Hot winds results in cracking of fruits before reaching maturity while excessive rainfall at the time of flowering interfere with pollination. The prolonged dry spell after fruit set reduces the crop considerably.

Litchi flourishes well on deep, well drained loamy soil, rich in organic matter and free from hard substrata.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the choicest and most ancient fruits known to mankind. It occupies a pre-eminent place amongst the subtropical fruits grown in Jammu region and occupies an area of 12,739 ha with annual yield of 24,150 metric tons. It is extensively grown in Jammu district and also in the sub-tropical areas of Udhampur, Reasi, Kathua and Rajouri districts.

Climate and Soil

Mango thrives well up to 600 m above mean sea level provided locality is frost free and there is no high humidity or rains during flowering. The favourable temperature is 24⁰ C to 27⁰ C, however, it can tolerate temperature as high as 48⁰ C provided that trees are getting regular irrigation.

Mango has been found to grow on a wide range of soils. However, deep and well-drained sandy loam soils are most suitable for its cultivation. Heavy black cotton, saline and alkaline soils should be avoided. The ideal range of soil pH for mango cultivation is 5.5 to 7.5.

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.) is a highly popular fruit crop grown in temperate regions of the world. In India, peach cultivation is confined to mid hill zone of Himalayas extending from J&K State to Khasi Hill at an altitude of 1500 to 2000 meters above mean sea level. Low chilling cultivars are also grown in sub mountainous zones of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Western U.P. and also gaining popularity in sub-tropical areas of Jammu. Peach crop in J&K state covers an area of 2,615 hectares with 1,699 hectares falling in Jammu Division. Total production of peach in J&K state is 6,221 metric tonnes, out of which 2,612 metric tonnes are being contributed by Jammu Division. Main peach growing areas in Jammu region are hilly areas of Poonch, Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban Udhampur, Reasi, Rajouri and Kathua districts. Recently, the new orchards of low chill peaches are also being planted in Jammu, Samba and Kathua districts.

Climate and Soil

Peach does well in wet and cool climate with cold winter and dry summer. It likes mild climate. The limiting factors in peach cultivation are the minimum winter temperature, chilling hours, spring frost, hail storms, high humidity and desiccating winds during summer. In sub-tropical areas of North, the low chilling cultivars require 50-300 hours of chilling during the winter for proper flowering and fruiting.

The peach thrives well on light textured soil. Deep, fertile, loam or sandy loam with good drainage is considered well for successful peach cultivation. Poorly drained soil should be rejected for peach cultivation.

Pear (Pyrus spp.) is a superior temperate fruit with good taste and flavour. Because of its tolerance to wide range of soil and climatic conditions, it is grown both in sub-tropical and temperate conditions. In J&K, 14,532 hectare area is under cultivation, with an annual production of 88,329 metric tones. In Jammu Division, pear is being grown on 7,600 hectare having 30,257 metric tonnes production annually. The pear is grown in Doda, Poonch, Rajouri, Udhampur and Kathua districts of Jammu Division.

Climate and Soil

Pear is adapted to wide range of climatic conditions. Most of the commercial cultivars require 900-1000 hours of chilling below 7^oC to break the dormancy. Pear is a temperate fruit crop; however, it can be grown successfully in subtropical regions of Jammu. There are several low chilling cultivars, which are well adapted for cultivation under sub-tropical conditions. Pears are grown successfully over a wide range of soils provided they have sufficient moisture. Compared to apples, they are less tolerant to drought and rather more tolerant to impeded drainage. Deep, well drained and fertile soil give high yield.

Pecan (Carya illinoensis) is a highly nutritive and energy giving nut fruit. It has nutty flavor and superb tree characteristics. Area under pecannut in J&K is 414 hectares with annual production of 86 metric tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Pecan need warm temperate climate and extremes of both temperate and sub-tropical climates are undesirable. It needs adequate chilling hours ranging from 400-600 hours below 7.2^oC for different cultivars. Mean monthly temperature ranging from 24.0 to 29.5⁰C, with little diurnal variation during growing period is best for growth and fruiting. High humidity prevents pollination, increases the incidence of diseases and premature splitting of nuts.

Although pecan nuts are grown in varied soil conditions, but sandy loam soils (pH 5.0-8.0) which are deep, fertile and are rich in organic matter are best for its growth and fruiting. Symbiotic mycorrhiza and fibrous roots permeate the top 1 meter of soil.

Phalsa (Grewia subinaequalis) is one of the hardiest, drought resistant and quick growing fruit crop. Different parts of the plant are used for curing variety of ailments. The ripe phalsa fruits are consumed fresh, in desserts or processed into refreshing fruit and soft drinks enjoyed during hot summers.

Climate and Soil

Phalsa prefers dry conditions and can therefore, withstand drought. It flourishes well under variable climatic conditions, and requires protection from the freezing cold temperature. Also, adequate sunlight and warm or hot temperatures are required for fruit ripening, development of appropriate fruit colour and good eating quality. Kandi areas are, therefore, quite suitable for its cultivation. It can also be grown under irrigated conditions. Phalsa plant grows vigorously under wide range of soils including fine sand, clay or even limestone. However, best results are obtained in well-drained, loamy soils.

Plum (Prunus saliciana Lindl.) is a temperate fruit and grows on commercial scale in J&K, HP and Uttaranchal. In J&K, plum cultivation is spread over 4,038 hectares with total yield of 10,112 metric tones. In Jammu Division, plum is being grown in temperate areas of Poonch, Rajouri, Doda and Kathua districts covering an area of 2,665 hectares with an annual production of 14,240 metric tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Plums because of their wide variability between different species, exhibit considerate varietal differences in their climatic requirements. The Japanese plums do very well in the low and mid hill regions ranging between 650 to 1650 meters above mean sea level. Some varieties can be grown successfully in the warmer regions of plains.

For good growth and longer life of plants, well drained medium to deep soils are most suitable. Plums propagated on peach root stocks grow better on sandy loam soil, while for heavier soils apricot rootstock or Kabul green gage root stocks of plum can be used.

Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) are found in the northern parts of the country in temperate belts. They are grown in the length and breadth of the valley in Jammu and Kashmir and hilly areas of Jammu. The walnut is being cultivated in the state on 89,339 ha with an annual production of about 2,66,280 metric tonnes. In Jammu Division, walnut plantation is on 38,318 ha with an annual production of 92,227 metric tonnes. The walnut is very rich in proteins, fats and minerals and is a concerned source of energy.

Climate and Soil

Walnuts are found growing in all parts of the Himalayan region between the elevation of 1200 to 2100 m above mean sea level. Walnuts are sensitive to both low and high temperature. Climate should be free from frost in spring and from extreme heat in summer. They grow well in areas where rainfall is about 75 cm or more and is well distributed. Temperature of 29-32^oC near harvest time, results in well-filled kernels.

Walnuts do best in soils where roots can penetrate deep evenly. In addition to good top soil, sub-soil must be free of rock, impervious clay or layers of gravel. Most suitable soil is well drained silt loam with abundant organic matter. Alkaline soil and sandy soils should be avoided for walnut growing. A soil with 2-3 metres depth and pH range of 6-7 gives best results.

In practice, flowers are collected from wild plantations. Recently kewda has emerged as one of the important commercial commodities. A systematic cultivation practice is essential to develop a successful plantation and to increase the productivity.

Planting

Kewda suckers or crowns are generally planted during June-July. i.e. in the beginning of the monsoon, when the soil is not too wet. Planting in wet soil delayd the root formation and reduces the success level. Just after the first shower of rain or during the summer shower close to monsoon, kewda is planted.

In a full grown plant, stilt roots originate at a few feet above the ground to render a support for the huge canopy of the plant. Each part of the stem is capable enough for development of root initials, but it is retarded once the stem became old and leafless. The root initials develop at the terminal portion, where more leaves cluster, but they do not grow. Hence, the stem cuttings collected from the flowering or non-flowering shoots bear the rudimentary roots and when planted, they establish quickly.

In practice, the cuttings are collected and scattered on the ground for two to three days. Before planting, a few leaves closed to the base of the cuttings are removed to expose the root development sites. The cuttings are planted in trenches of 45 cm depth horizontally or at an angle of 30^o. The new leaves appear on the growing points one month after planting.

Kewda plants are usually planted on the field bunds for fencing and subsequently used for collection of flowers. A 30 years old plant can produce a crown of 6-7 m, for which it is difficult to develop a commercial plantation in a close spacing. It has been observed in the natural plantations that the plants may be spaced at 8-10 m distance to achieve a full length of plantation life. It is, therefore, suggested by the authors to follow a paired row method of planting maintaining a spacing of 4 m between plants and rows of a paired row and 6 m between two paired rows; which provides all facilities for plant growth upto 10-12 years and then pruning of a few branches are required. Hence, a plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150-200 plants on field bunds are maintained in a land of one hectare.

23.1 Introduction

Cultural methods have been in practice for pest management in traditional systems of agriculture since time immemorial. The worldwide awareness of safe environment provided the impetus to foster non-chemical pest management strategies. Of these strategies, cultural control constitutes the most farmer-oriented approach, where the weak points in the biology and behaviour of insects are exploited and pressure is exerted on the population by manipulating the environment.  In addition to the cultural practices, the other widely used approach is the use of physical control methods which hold promise and provide an attractive alternative to current practices, particularly when integrated into a general control scheme incorporating cultural methods, plant breeding, biological or behavioural methods and pesticides. In physical control methods, the physical environment of the pest is modified in such a way that the insects no longer pose a threat to the agricultural crop.

Cultural characteristics of bacteria deal with the appearance of the growth in various liquid and on solid media. The growth characteristics of most of the bacteria are typical of the group or species and help in their identification. The terminology employed to describe various features of bacterial growth are mentioned below.

Introduction

Cultural management is defined as manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques for management of plant diseases. Cultural practices have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stage of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for management of plant diseases. Adequate adjustment in crop production techniques can modify the environment in such a manner that it becomes unfavorable for the pathogen and pathogenesis. Based on this the disease control affected by cultural practices are preventive, these practices aim at reducing the activity and density of inoculum. It offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, behavior of the causal agent to achieve economic management of disease.

Introduction

Cultural management is defined as manipulation /or adjustment of crop production techniques for management of plant diseases. Cultural practices have been as old as possibly agriculture itself. In early stage of agriculture development, the growers through their experiences and observations had known that repeated cultivation of a particular crop species or variety on a piece of land often resulted in crop sickness. As a matter of fact, in the present day agriculture, cultural practices are being considered as essential backup methods for management of plant diseases. Adequate adjustment in crop production techniques can modify the environment in such a manner that it becomes unfavorable for the pathogen and pathogenesis. Based on this the disease control affected by cultural practices are preventive, these practices aim at reducing the activity and density of inoculum. It offer the opportunity to alter the environment, the condition of the host, behavior of the causal agent to achieve economic management of disease.