eChapters

Bioinformatics is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) and protein sequence, structure, function, pathways and genetic interactions. It generates new knowledge that is useful in such fields as drug design and development of new software tools to create that knowledge. Bioinformatics also deals with algorithms, databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, structural biology, software engineering, data mining, image processing, modeling and simulation, discrete mathematics, control and system theory, circuit theory, and statistics.

Introduction

Plants are the principal producers of phytochemicals, which are compounds with biological activity. Plants serve as the primary source of many active compounds in the pharmaceutical business. Their pharmacological character istics make them useful in the treatment of fungal and bacterial infections, as well as degenerative conditions such as diabetes and cancer that progress over time. Pharmacologically, it has specific effects on human health, including anti-inflammatory properties, antiallergic, antioxidant compounds, antimicrobial, antifungal, antispasmodic, chemopreventive, hepatic-protective, hypolipidemic, neuroprotective, hypotensive, antiaging, bone density loss, DNA damage, cancer, and heart diseases.

Gypsophila is herbacaeous annual or perennial flowering plant belongs to family Caryophyllaceae. It contains several ornamental species of which Gypsophila paniculata L. is the only species used as a cut flower (Zvi et al., 2008) and it is applied as filler in flower arrangements (Jones, 1995 and Rehman, 2002). Gypsophila derived from “gypson” meaning chalk and “phylos” meaning lover, an etymology which alludes to its preference for calcareous soils (Vettory et al., 2013). Mainly found in temperate or warm-temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere, best developed in the Mediterranean region and Near East (Ataslar et al., 2009 and Cronquist, 1981). It is a perennial plant often grown commercially as an annual crop. Root is rich source of triterpine saponins (Henry, 1993, Hostettmann, 1995 and Gevrenova et al., 2010) which are used for commercially in medicines, detergents, adjuvents and cosmetics (Hostettmann, 1995, Tschesche and Wulff, 1973 and Gevrenova et al., 2010).

Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The US began the GPS project in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton, Ivan A. Getting and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.
 
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contem-poraneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. There are also the planned European Union Galileo positioning system, China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, and India’s Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System.

Q. 1 Density of water is:-
(A) 1000 kg/m3    (B) 500 kg/m3
(C) 1500 kg/m3    (D) 2000 kg/m3

Introduction

Agriculture sector has the most important role in Indian economy. Earlier, Indian farmers largely depend upon the human and animal power. But with time passage, implements viz. tractor and tractor driven have been introduced. During the last 10 years, It has been observed that the concept of farm mechanization and its importance has been well accepted and accordingly new farm implements/ equipments have been developed and commercialized. This has resulted in increase of productivity and production to feed the ever increasing population besides reduction in drudgery associated with farm operations. Farm mechanization has played a positive role in increasing employment in rural areas through generation of opportunities for operators, mechanics, salesmen etc. (Anonymous, 2018)

Introduction

We live in India, a country which is in its developing phase and would be developed soon and also where most of the population is concentrated in the rural areas. So, eventually, rural development emerges to be of much importance for the overall economic development of the nation. But it’s a big disgrace for us that the population in the majority lies below the line of poverty. The development of households in rural areas is of much significantly related to entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship can be regarded as a tool to fasten up the process of rural development.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, libraries were considered book storage facilities for kings and other prominent members of society. However, the idea of conventional libraries was altered with the advent of ICT.The development of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and information technology (IT) are assisting in increasing f inancing for studies on creating, accessing, and administeringelectronic information resources. As a result, a new era of digital and virtual libraries has emerged. These technological developments have made it possible for a new generation of information professionals to successfully select, organize, retrieve, and communicate digital content to their target audience (Nazim & Saraf, n.d.). The concept emerged again when computers were connected to tremendous networks to create education and research cantered on creating digital libraries accessible to anybody all over the World. Terms like "virtual library", "electronic library", "library without walls”,and "digital library" have been used to characterize this broad concept (Cleveland, n.d.). Digital Libraries are enormous collections of organized information resources. Elegant “Digital Library” software can enable everyone to perceive, organize, develop, and disseminate new information collection.Libraries have long been seen as safeguards of information, having developed over centuries from private repositories of manuscripts to community centres teeming with activity and education. This evolution has accelerated in the digital age, forcing libraries to negotiate the challenging flows of digital evolution.

Packaging machinery is a critical component in the food industry, enabling the efficient and consistent packaging of food products while maintaining safety, quality, and freshness. From automated filling and sealing systems to advanced inspection and labeling machines, packaging machinery plays a pivotal role in delivering food products to consumers in optimal condition. The machinery used in food packaging is designed to handle various product types, from solid and liquid foods to powders and granular items, each requiring specific handling, filling, and sealing techniques. In an industry where speed, hygiene, and precision are paramount, packaging machinery has evolved to include sophisticated features such as robotics, computer-controlled systems, and sensors that monitor critical parameters like weight, temperature, and fill levels. These innovations help manufacturers improve productivity, reduce waste, and ensure that food products meet regulatory standards and consumer expectations.

The problem soils are those which, due to its land or soil characteristics, cannot be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures. 
Classification of  Problem Soils:  The problem soils are divided into 3 groups. 
    ·    Highly Eroded Soils 
    ·    Saline and Alkali Soils 
    ·    Acid Soils 
Highly Eroded Soils
These soils are called ‘Usar’ in U.P., ‘Kallar or Thur’ in Punjab and ‘Luni’ in Rajasthan. In India, area under saline alkali soils is 7.0 mha. When the chloride (Cl), sulphate (SO₄^2-), carbonate (CO^₃2-) and bicarbonate(HCO₃-) salts of sodium (Na⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) are increased in the soil, the soil become saline and alkaline. On the basis of amount of soluble salts, average quantity of exchangeable Na and pH, they are classified into 3 groups

10.1 Introduction

Grain legumes such as chickpea, pigeonpea, cowpea, field pea , lentil, ,  and Phaseolus beans are the principal source of dietary protein among vegetarians, and are an integral part of daily diet in several forms worldwide. They are an important component of cropping systems to maintain soil fertility because of their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, extract water and nutrients from the deeper layers of the soil as compared to cereals, and add organic matter into the soil through leaf drop. However, grain legumes are mainly grown under rainfed conditions and the productivity levels are quite low mainly because of severe losses due to insect pests and diseases.  Average grain yield of pulses (0.86 t/ha) is only about one-fourth the average yields of cereals (3.54 t/ha).  Production and productivity of grain legumes is constrained by several biotic and abiotic factors, and suffer an average of 31.9 to 69.6% loss in crop productivity due to insects, diseases, drought, weeds,  and soil fertility. Pod borers (Helicoverpa and Maruca), Fusarium wilts, viral diseases, Ascochyta blight and Botrytis gray mold (Chen et al., 2011).

Abstract

This chapter presents the principle of fluidisation and its use in drying of food materials. Being a convective drying process, capacity and kinetics are limited by process conditions and material properties. The influences are discussed as well as presenting the main equations that describe drying in fluidised beds. The main focus lies on hot gas drying, additionally superheated steam drying as well as atmospheric fluidised bed freeze drying and microwave-assisted fluidised bed drying are presented and discussed.

Weed Ecology

Ecology is the study of reciprocal relationship between organisms and their environments. The ecology of weed is thus concerned with growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to exploit the ecological niches left open in those environments altered by man for his use and the survival mechanisms where by weeds persist in such environments. In simple words weed ecology is reciprocal relationship of weeds with their environments. Weeds grow voluntarily in all crops raised by human beings since ancient ecology of weeds is divided into two categories (types).

1. Weed Auto Ecology

It is study of only one population i.e. how an individual species in a population interacts with its environment at all stages of its life cycle. So, in case of auto ecology competition within same species (intraspecific) or with crop plants (inter specific competition) is studied.

2. Weed Synecology

The study of relationships between communities of different weed species with their environment is called weed synecology. Different weed species grow in certain combinations and in specific patterns in the ûeld. The population of different weed species interact with the external environmental conditions and among themselves. Weed communities differ from field to field and crop to crop in the same locality. The community character is dynamic and changes in form and composition of weed flora takes place in course of time due to some external and internal factors prevailing in the community. This process is called ecological succession. With the passage of time there will be series of changes in the composition of weed community which ultimately results in stable community. This is termed as climax community.

BOOK KEEPING & GENERAL ENTRY SYSTEM

Business Transactions can be recorded in any system, which provides the necessary financial position of a business and results of transactions. The Business transactions are recorded through systems of book keeping as maintained in accounting are as follows:

Book Keeping: This is an activity concerned with the recording of financial data relating to business operations in a significant and orderly manner. Book keeping is the record making phase of accounting. Accounting is based on a careful and an efficient book keeping system.

The essential idea behind maintaining book keeping records is to show correct position regarding each head of income and expenditure. It is concerned with the recording of business transaction in a significant and orderly manner which is mechanical and repetitive in character. 

Education: Education is the production of desirable changes in the behaviour of the people. It is the production of desirable changes in human behaviour in knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them.

Behaviour: Includes three components viz., knowledge, attitude and skill

Knowledge (Cognitive): It includes facts, concepts, principles and relationship.

Attitude (Affective): An attitude can be loosely defined as a feeling towards some object, person and situation or idea.

Introduction

In 1928, Alexander Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist, made a significant observation while studying bacterial cultures. He noticed that colonies of bacteria on a culture plate had been negatively impacted by the presence of a mold called Penicillium notatum, which had accidentally contaminated the culture. Around a decade later, a team of researchers including British biochemist Ernst Chain and Australian pathologist Howard Florey successfully isolated the active compound responsible for this effect and named it penicillin (Lalchhandama, 2021).

The genus Hydrangea is the best-known member of family Hydrangeaceae tribe Hydrangeae from the Asterid order Cornales. With more than two centuries of horticultural trade, Hydrangea cultivars are among the most popular ornamental shrubs worldwide (McClintock, 1957 and Kardos et al., 2009). Hydrangea (Hortensia) is a very popular ornamental plant for gardens. Hydrangeas occur most often on partly shaded but open slopes, rock edges, cliffs, roadside banks, edges of woods, or in moist open woods. Usually, restricted to the more moist, protected slopes. Recently it is commercialized for the production of cut flowers (Sacco et al., 2012). In India is widely grown in hilly areas.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The species of genus Hydrangea L. grow naturally in temperate areas of Eastern Asia, including some Pacific islands adjacent to Eastern Asia (Philippines, Taiwan, etc.), in temperate Northeastern America, in subtropical Middle and South America (McClintock, 1957). Throughout the eastern United States, ranging from the middle Atlantic States southward through the Southern Appalachians, and westward into the Ozarks and lower Midwest, numerous populations of shrubs with large, ovate, opposite leaves and compound cymes of small white flowers are en-countered. These are the wild hydrangeas.

SPECIES

Hydrangea is a genus of about 75 species of flowering plants native to southern and eastern Asia and North and South America. Most are shrubs 1-3 tall, but some are small trees and others lianas (Sacco et al., 2012). Species differ qualitatively in flavonoid constituents.