eChapters

1. Shot berry in Perlette grape can be overcome by spray of ethrel @:

 a) 15 ppm b) 20 ppm

 c) 25 ppm d) 30 ppm

 2. Which of the following plant growth regulator is used for somatic embryogenesis in mango?

 a) Kinetin b) 2, 4-D

 c) GA3 d) ABA

 3. Which of the following fruit crops has the highest chilling requirement?

 a) Cherry b) Apple

 c) Walnut d) Apricot

1. Which rare species of Mangifera is endemic to the Philippines

 a) Mangifera  merrillii b) Mangifera minutifolia

 c) Mangifera laurina d) Mangifera paludosa

 2. Which of the following crops is largely exported from India?

 a) Walnut b) Mango

 c) Grape d) Banana

 3. Lowest number of AEZs belongs which state?

 a) Maharashtra b) Karnataka

 c) West Bengal d) Andhra Pradesh

1. ‘National horticulture mission’ was launched during

 a) 2003 b) 2004

 c) 2005 d) 2006

 2. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India in:

 a) 1980 b) 1985

 c) 1990 d) 1995

 3. Which of the following ‘journal’ is published from indian academy of horticultural sciences ?

 a) Indian journal of horticulture

 b) Progressive horticulture

 c) South indian journal of horticulture

 d) Indian  journal   of ornamental horticultur

1. The average productivity of fruits in india is:

 a) 9.2 t/ha b) 12.2 t/ha

 c) 14.2 t/ha d) 16.2 t/ha

 2. The leading state in fruit production in india is:

 a) A.P. b) U.P.

 c) Maharashtra d) Karnataka

 3. The leading state in pineapple production in india is:

 a) Maharashtra b) Assam

 c) West Bengal d) Tripura

1. Which of the following variety of grape is commercially grown in North India?

 a) Pearlette  b) Pusa Seedless

 c) Thompson Seedless  d) Pusa Navrang

 2. Which of the following is highly shade tolerant fruit crop?

 a) Carambola  b) Coconut

 c) Citrus  d) Mango

 3. Type of apomixis present in citrus is:

 a) Non recurrent  b) Recurrent

 c) Parthenocarpy  d) All of the above

1. ‘Flying Dragon’ a dwarfing rootstock of citrus. The dwarfness is governed by:

 a) Single dominant gene b) Single recessive gene

 c) Polygenes d) Additive genes

 2. India’s contribution in the total world production of fruits is.

 a) 10.5% b) 12.5%

 d) 17.5% c) 15.5%

 3. In which fruit crop the first transgenic was produced:

 a) Papaya c) Pear

 b) Plum d) Walnut

1. Partial ringing of branches above a dormant lateral bud is known as

 a) Ringing b) Notching

 c) Smudging d) Nicking

 2. Epigenous germination is found in which of the following fruit crops

 a) Mango b) Tamarind

 c) Cashewnut d) All of them

 3. The development of seed portion viz. two polar nuclei+ sperm nucleus results into which of the following fruit organ

 a) Seed coat b) Perisperm

 b) Endosperm d) Zygote

Apart from the heart rate and rhythm, the electrocardiogram also provides information pertaining to the chamber size, i.e. the presence of chamber enlargement in dogs. It can more precisely be evaluated if the P QRS and T complexes are clearly visible without any artifacts. Further, the measurement of the chamber enlargements is only possible when all the segments of the ECG are clearly visible. When the impulse is conducted uninterruptedly from sino-atrial node (SA node) to AV node to the ventricles, the measurement of the amplitude of the complexes (P, QRS, T) is more precise in providing information regarding the presence of chamber enlargement.

Introduction

Aquaculture is one of the rapidly growing industries worldwide with more than 300 different species being cultured. However, majority of aquaculture species are still wild and undomesticated, and the adaption of relevant technologies in the aquaculture sector has been slow. Given that genetically modified stock only accounts for less than 10% of the current global aquaculture production, the aquaculture sector has significant potential to increase production efficiency through selective breeding programmes. Selective breeding is acknowledged as a crucial element in the generation of resource-efficient, sustainable, and profitable aquaculture operations (FAO, 1995; World bank, 2006).

Introduction

The maritime industry, a cornerstone of global trade and commerce, has always been a complex and challenging domain. With the vastness of the world's oceans and the diversity of activities that take place within them, effective monitoring and management of maritime activities are crucial. This is where Systems for Monitoring Vessels come into play. VMS are a form of satellite based surveillance system designed to monitor the location, course, and speed of vessels. They provide real-time data to maritime authorities, contributing to the safety, security, and sustainability of marine operations.

Introduction

Fisheries

For millions of people, fishing and aquaculture continue to be vital food sources, nutrition, money, and livelihood. Fish is a good and economical source of animal protein, offering a solution to the nation's problems with hunger and malnutrition. The Indian fishing industry underwent progressive development throughout the years and developed into a significant socioeconomic factor for the country. India is the third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, contributing roughly 16% of all inland fish production and 5% of all marine f ish production worldwide, (Department of Fishery, 2023).

Introduction

Traditionally, diagnosing diseases in aquatic animals has involved identifying the infectious agent directly using molecular methods like in situ hybridization or PCR or culture-based methods. Rarely is serological testing used to diagnose f ish. Serological tests have been widely utilized in surveillance programs for terrestrial animals to confirm suspected cases, establish absence of infection or progress toward eradication, estimate infection prevalence, certify individual animals prior to import or export, and show the effectiveness of vaccination.

In recent years several plant pathological laboratories have been using molecular techniques for identification of the fungal plant pathogens isolated from the diseased plants. These are specifically used for the confirmation of the pathogen identified based on their cultural and microscopic characteristics. With the help of fungal genomic studies, not only the genus but also the species of the pathogen is identified based on the genomic sequences available with NCBI, and provide the accurate identification of the fungal isolate. This identification method involves the following steps:a

Introduction

A geographical information system (GIS) is a kind of database that has software tools for handling, analyzing, and presenting spatial data and descriptions of phenomena that have a location component. This system can also involve human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, a body of knowledge about relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations in a wider sense. GIS technology is a key part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House describes as “the policies, technologies, standards, human resources, and related activities that are necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”

Introduction

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system of satellites and ground stations that provide location and time information for any place on earth, regardless of the weather. GPS is a type of GNSS, which stands for global navigation satellite systems. GPS has many applications in precision farming, such as farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop guidance, variable- rate applications (VRAs) and yield mapping. GPS helps farmers work in low- visibility conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness. India has its own GPS system called IRNSS or NavIC, which uses about seven satellites. GPS is owned and operated by the U.S. government, specifically the U.S.

• General considerations

 • Collection of blood

 • Storage

 • Examination of blood

 • Coagulation time

 • Bleeding time

 • Determination of movement of parasites under wet film

• Total erythrocyte count

 • Total leucocyte count

 • Differential leucocyte count

 • Hemoglobin

 • Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

• Hematocrit value

 • Mean corpuscular volume

 • Mean corpuscular hemoglobin

 • Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

 • Erythrocyte fragility test

• General considerations

 • Direct examination

 • Culture methods

 • Some important tests used in identification of bacteria

 • Characteristics of some organisms

 • Gram positive cocci

 • Gram positive rods

 • Gram negative rods

 • Mycobacteria

 • Leptospira/spirochete

 • Rickettsia

 • Chlamydia

 • Mycoplasma

 • Fungi

 • Virus

 • Antibacterial sensitivity testing

Weeds have been a problem to agriculture ever sine man started cultivation. Weed species by and large invade cropped areas and account for large economic losses to the farmer. Weeds are economically more important than insects, fungi or other pest organisms (Savary et al. 2000, 2006). Globally, weeds cause the highest potential loss to crop production (34%), with animal pests and pathogens being less important (losses of18% and 16% respectively). The loss in production due to weeds has been estimated as 5% in developed countries. It is around 10% in developing countries and 25% in least developed countries. (Oerke, 2006)

Rice is the primary food source for half of the Asian population. Nearly 2,000 million in this region obtain 60 to 70 per cent of their calories from rice and its products. Considering the importance of the crop, United Nations General Assembly declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice” (IYR). In India, the crop covers one-fourth of the total cropped area. About half of the Indian population use rice as their staple food.

Rice based cropping systems are not only important for food security but also for maintaing an ecological balance. Low land rice fields conserve water and prevent runoff .They preserve the sustainability of the ecosystem.

1.1 Introduction

Broadcasting seed and harvesting meagre yields was a common method of ancient agriculture. High use of developed crop varieties, irrigation, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm mechanization is the main thrust of modern agriculture. Therefore, modern agriculture is an energy intensive farming system (Khan et al., 2010). Though modern technology based agriculture is achieving success to meet food demand of increasing global population, yet it creates many environmental issues such as loss of soil fertility, salinization and water scarcity.

6.1 Introduction

The birth of modern conventional agriculture coincides with industrial revolution. The identification of N, P and K as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers. While chemical fertilizers and pesticides have existed since the 19th century, their use grew significantly in the early 20 century with the invention of Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonia. The rapid farm mechanization, especially in the form of tractor and combine harvester coupled with science-driven innovative management methods and resources led to the efficiency of enabling outputs of high quality produce per unit area and time.

1 Sechium eduleis the botanical name of

 a) Chekurmanis b) Basella

 c) Chow-Chow d) Water Leaf

 2 Cylon Spinach is also known as

 a) Chayote b) Malabar Spinach

 c) Indian Spinach d) Water Leaf

 3 Botanical name of Leek is

 a) Allium porum b) Allium sativum

 c) Allium cepa d) None of thes

1 What is the scientific name of Dill

 a) Acorus calamus b) Pimenta dioca

 c) Pimpinella anisum d) Anethum graveolens

 2 Important chemical content present in Asafoetida is

 a) Phenol b) Terbein

 c) Ferumine d) Limone

 3 Karimunda is a variety of

 a) Ginger b) Black Pepper

 c) Cardemom d) Cumin

15.1 Introduction

An endoskeleton is a skeleton that is on the inside of the body of an animal. It is an internal supporting structure composed of mineralized tissue. The endoskeleton develops within the skin or the deeper body tissues. It participates in protection, helps in movement, provides shape and support and stores minerals like calcium. Gerringer et al. (2021) suggested that changes in skeletal structure are non linear and are driven by hydrostatic pressure, other environmental factors and evolutionary ancestry.

46.1 Introduction

Since humans settled and flourished adjacent to the aquatic bodies and therefore f ishes might have attracted their attention. The increasing population has threatened mankind variously amongst which, the most important one is the food problem. Fish being a valuable and easily available source of food can be used to overcome the food problem to a certain extent. Indian rivers are the major source of irrigation systems, drinking water and fish as food. The fish industry of West Bengal and Orissa is some 1500 years old and in West Bengal, every family traditionally has at least one small or moderate-sized pond.

Introduction

To accomplish the objectives of the organisation, the administration often performs a standard set of tasks. Administration is the direction, leadership, and supervision of a group’s actions toward certain common objectives (Newman, 1950). It suggests sincere efforts made to plan and manage human activities in order to accomplish set or desired goals. Organising, leading, and controlling people and resources to achieve predetermined goals.

The 1980s and 1990s saw a few shifts in how we view development. There has been a significant ideological change in favour of privatisation. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in the participation of the private sector (which deals with agro-inputs, agribusiness, and financial services), non governmental organisations (both local and international), producer groups, cooperatives, and associations, as well as independent and connected to or employed by agri-business/producer associations consultants and ICT (Information and Communication technologies) based services.

Introduction

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is transmitted to the members of a social system over some time and through channels in a specified manner. According to Rogers (1962), this is a unique form of communication in which the messages are focused on innovative concepts. The concepts can include (i) A new idea, (ii) An idea that is communicated via certain channels (iii) Among the members of a social system (iv) Overtime. On the other hand, the adoption process is the mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption, as defined by Rogers (1962).

Introduction

Agriculture is one of the most important sectors of the global economy and provides food, fibre, and other crucial commodities to the world’s population. With the increasing global population, there is a need to improve agricultural efficiency and productivity to fulfil the growing demand for food. The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has been recognized as a critical factor in the development of agriculture and rural areas. In recent years, e-extension has emerged as a promising ICT tool for agriculture development, enabling farmers to access information and services remotely.

Introduction

Both the technology generation system and the technology transfer system play crucial roles in agriculture. For a very long time, research through the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), such as the Department of Agriculture Services (DARS), and other research institutions, such as Universities, has produced a vast body of innovations and technological information (Drechsel et al?, 2004). Despite the many promising improvements that researchers have produced, there is still very little application for them (Doss, 2005). A greater knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the distribution and acceptance of agricultural research output is necessary to know the cause of the low levels of technology uptake (Garforth, 1998).

Introduction

India is an agriculture dominated country. According to the report of the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households by the NSO, 54.6% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and allied sectors which encompasses for 17.8% of India’s total GVA for the year 2019-20. The number of operational holdings in the country is estimated at 14.64 crores (Agriculture Census 2016). As we can see from Figure 1 the operational landholding of Indian farmers is increasing day by day. The average size of operational holdings was 1.15 hectares in 2010-11 which has declined to 1.08 hectares in the year 2015-16 (Agriculture Statistics at a Glance, 2021).

Introduction

India ranks second in global silk production next to China and first in raw silk and silk fabrics consumption, accounting for 70% with a production of 34,923MT in 2021-22. In total silk production traditional crossbreed silkworms contribute 3/4th and 1/4th bivoltine breed (CSB reports). An important strategy for creating jobs and offering a variety of entrepreneurial prospects for rural development is sericulture, which has a solid agricultural foundation. Sericulture is comprised of both agro-based and industry-based activities.

Introduction

Seaweeds are referred to as the wonder plants of the sea, macrophytic marine algae which are a primitive type of plants lacking true roots, stems and leaves. They usually grow in shallow coastal and marine water. Based on the occurrence of pigments, seaweeds are classified into three groups: Green seaweeds (Chlorophyta) having the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b; Brown seaweeds (Phaeophyta) having the pigment fucoxanthin; and Red seaweeds (Rhodophyta) having the pigment phycoerythrin.

Introduction

A subfield of horticulture known as “urban horticulture” is concerned with the care, maintenance, and use of plants in urban settings. Urban gardening encompasses a broad range of plant life, from ornamental plants to trees, shrubs, flowers, vegetables, and even fruit trees.

Plants, both ornamental and edible, are the specialty of urban horticulture, a subfield of horticulture concerned with their care and production in urban and peri-urban settings. Horticulture is the study and practice of growing plants for their aesthetic and functional value in urban and suburban settings.The practice of urban horticulture includes all aspects of creating and maintaining urban gardens, parks, and other green areas. The practice of urban horticulture entails improving the visual, ecological, and recreational qualities of built environments through the deliberate selection, placement, and ongoing care of plants.

Introduction

A new method of producing food is emerging via sustainable agricultural techniques, which prioritise ecological harmony, resource preservation, and sustainability above short-term gains. In light of the pressing issues of a warming planet, dwindling natural resources, and an ever-increasing human population, these methods are crucial. Soil fertility and health are enhanced by the use of sustainable agricultural practices such as crop rotation, decreased tillage, and organic farming, which minimise chemical inputs. It promotes efficient water management practices, such as collecting rainwater and using drip irrigation, to cut down on waste.

Introduction

Organic farming is a comprehensive approach to production management that promotes and improves Agro-health, ecosystems including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It prioritizes management approaches above off-farm inputs, and agronomic, biological, and mechanical farming procedures are used rather than synthetic resources (Ajibade, Ayinde, and Abdoulaye 2020). The term “organic farming” refers to a production technique that excludes the use of artificially formulated fertilizers, pesticides, or growth regulators for agronomic practices or the use of different chemicals for livestock production, i.e., feed additives, growth promoters and antibiotics, etc. (M. Singh 2021).

Introduction

Soil plays a vital role in fulfilling fundamental human requirements, such as the provision of sustenance and water, while also serving as the primary medium for supporting biodiversity. The sustainability of soil in the 21st century is dependent upon not only the implementation of effective management practices by farmers, foresters, and land-planners, but also on government regulations, policies, marketing strategies, and subsidies (Mishra et al., 2017). The increasing influence of human activities on the Earth’s natural environment has led to significant global challenges concerning the interplay of planetary and public health (J. Huang et al., 2018).

Introduction

Soil is a vital, complex, and firm layer of the land surface that provides a source of minerals and organic matter interacting with air and water to harbor life forms. (Lobmann et al., 2022). Versatile micro and macro living organisms, i.e., bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, inhabit soil and contribute to its quality, health, and inevitable role in serving the environment (Elsakhawy et al., 2022). Soil roots for a variety of crucial functions which involve ecosystem services or socioeconomic activities, e.g., biomass production, climate gas fluxes of CO2 , N2 O, and CH4 , water cleaning, storage and supply, foundation of construction and provision of construction materials, or provision of habitats etc. The responsibility of soil in sustaining life on earth by providing and conserving resources is not negotiable.

1. Introduction

Horticultural crops have emerged as a cornerstone of India’s agricultural sector, wielding substantial influence over the nation’s economic landscape. Comprising an extensive range of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal herbs, this sector has witnessed remarkable growth and transformation in recent years. The significance of horticultural crops extends beyond sheer economic value, permeating various facets of Indian agriculture and socio-economic development (Ravichandra & Ravichandra 2014).The unique agro-climatic diversity of India allows for the cultivation of an unparalleled variety of horticultural produce, contributing to its global prominence as a horticultural powerhouse.

Grapevine

One of the fruits that is grown worldwide most commonly, grapes are said to have a longer history of human interaction than either rice or wheat. Apart from their nutritional significance, grapes are today regarded as one of the most lucrative crops. The grapes are farmed for a variety of uses, including the manufacture of raisins, wine, juice, canning, and table grapes. More grapes are produced worldwide than any other fruit crop. Approximately 11 million hectares are devoted to growing grapes, which yield 75 million tonnes yearly. More than half of the world’s supply of grapes was produced in Spain, Italy, and France. Grapes are cultivated in India in both tropical and subtropical climates. In Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, commercial grape production only started in the last 40 years. Grapevine production affect many sever diseases like downy mildew, powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Black rot, Rust, Bacterial canker and abiotic causes.

Introduction

The apple (Malus domestica), a valuable and economically significant crop, is grown in India’s northwestern Himalayan region. After Orange, Banana, and Grape, it is the fourth most widely grown fruit worldwide. The tree is native to Central Asia, where its wild ancestor Malus sieversii is still found today. Apples have been cultivated in Asia and Europe for thousands of years. The world’s largest apple grower is China and in India it is grown in the hills of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir in India. The average summer temperature during the active period is about 21-24°C growing season. Apple does this best in areas where trees are dormant. The color development will be better in winter when plenty of sunlight hits. It is possible even at an altitude of 1500 -2700 meters from sea level. 1000-1250 mm well distributed rainfall during the growing season which is most suitable for optimal growth and fertility of apple trees.

Tea as a Beverage

Tea is the most popular beverage consumed in the world after water. All types of teas including black. green, oolong, white and pu-erh tea are mainly made from the buds and young leaves of tea plants, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze belongs to the family Theaceae [1]. Depending on the different processing techniques of tea leaves, tea types are categorized as “Green Tea” (unfermented), “Black Tea” (fully fermented), “Oolong Tea” (partially fermented), “Pu-ErhTea” (post fermented) and white tea (unfermented) [2]. The manufacturing process for these different types of teas mainly differ in the degree of enzymatic oxidation (fermentation) process [1].

Introduction

Germination is a critical stage for the establishment of plant species, especially those that grow naturally in arid and semi-arid environments (Alouani and Bani Aameur, 2004). Several factors may influence germination percentages in natural environments. Among these factors, seed dormancy contributes in part to germination failure of many species under adverse environmental conditions (Bewley, 1997). There are two categories of dormancy: coat- enhanced dormancy (seed coat dormancy), where the embryos isolated from these seeds are not dormant and embryo dormancy (internal dormancy), where the embryos themselves are dormant (Bewley, 1997;

Livelihood connotes the means, activities, entitlements and assets by which people make a living, attempt to meet their various consumption and economic necessities, cope with uncertainties and respond to new opportunities (De Haan and Zoomers, 2003).

Livelihood is a set of economic activities, involving self-employment and/ or wage- employment by using one’s endowments (human and material) to generate adequate resources (cash and non-cash) for meeting the requirements of self and the household.

Ideally, a livelihood should keep a person meaningfully and gainfully occupied in a sustainable manner with dignity

Livelihood, therefore, goes far beyond generating income. A livelihood is much more than employment.

Centesis is a surgical puncture or perforation into body cavity or structure usually done to aspirate fluid, air or tissue. The medical purpose of puncturing body cavities is not only to obtain fluid sample for diagnostic purpose but also to remove excessive fluid for therapeutic purpose for alleviating the respiratory distress owing to excessive fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity, pleural cavity or pericardial sac. This procedure is usually done to get fluid from abdominal cavity, thoracic cavity, pericardial sac or joint capsule and is aptly known as abdominocentesis, thoracentesis, pericardiocentesis or arthrocentesis respectively.

Almost all imaging techniques employed in human medicine are being followed in canine medicine but radiography and ultrasonography ( abdominal and cardiac) are the most commonly used clinical diagnostic techniques. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclear techniques are also being used in the teaching establishments.

Radiography

Use of radiography (Figure 42) as a diagnostic technique is wide spread in canine and feline medicine across the world. It is considered the first step in evaluating the skeleton, thorax and abdomen. For evaluating the abdomen, radiography is considered as complimentary to sonography. Canine practice is more like pediatrics requiring assistant to control the patients (dog sand cats). No anesthesia or sedation is generally required for radiography. But if the patient has painful lesion such as fracture or luxation, suitable anesthesia / sedation should be used for making the animal cooperative during radiography for better visualization of the lesions.

Eye is a very sensitive, delicate and unique organ. Its function may be affected with wide range of etiologies ranging from trauma, local and systemic infections, metabolic diseases to vision defects warranting an early and accurate diagnosis employing complete history, detailed ocular examination and or specialized diagnostic techniques such as Schirmer Tear Test (STT), Fluorescence Test, Ophthalmoscopy, Tonometry, Pachymetry, Retinoscopy and Gonioscopy etc.

Instruments for Ophthalmic Examination

•             Finn off Transilluminator

 •            Pen torch

 •            Direct Ophthalmoscope

 •            Indirect fundoscopic lens (2.2 diopter lens)

 •            Schirmer tear test strips

 •            Fluorescein strips

 •            Tonometer

10.1 Introduction

The incredible technology usage in e-commerce over the last several years has resulted in the fast growth of e-business enterprises. Technological innovation has created new opportunities for online businesses looking to provide value added services. Technology adoption, enhanced customer support, and creative product development have given businesses the necessary competitiveness. Consumers are more demanding than ever and more aware of their rights. E-commerce businesses are pressured to develop and provide value for their customers in novel ways.

13.1 Introduction

13.1.1 Bridging the Gap: Towards a More Equitable Digital Landscape

In an age dominated by digital technologies, the concept of a more equitable digital landscape is paramount to ensuring that the benefits of technology are accessible to all segments of society. The term "digital landscape" encompasses not only the physical infrastructure, such as internet connectivity and hardware, but also the socio-economic and educational factors that influence individuals' ability to participate in the digital realm. The digital divide, often exacerbated by disparities in access to technology, internet connectivity, and digital literacy, presents a significant challenge. This paper, titled "Bridging the Gap: Towards a More Equitable Digital Landscape," seeks to explore the multifaceted nature of the digital divide and propose strategies to overcome these challenges.

Introduction

The drying of fruits and vegetables during the season of abundance in order to preserve them for consumption during season of shortage is an ancient practice. Thus, drying is one of the oldest methods of preservation of the food commodities. It is practiced from ancient times and is a very common method of preservation in the tropical countries like India where conditions are much more favorable for sun drying. All micro-organisms need moisture to grow. So the removal of water in the food is brought down below a certain level at which they are unable to grow. Moisture content from food can be removed by different methods like sun drying (very oldest method and most popular), solar drying, cabinet drying, mechanical drying, tunnel drying, poly tunnel drying, adiabatic drying, spray drying, osmotic drying, fluidized bed drying etc. Grains are mostly dried in the sun. The moisture content of the grains can be reduced to a limit that is safer for their storage by sun drying. Many fruits and vegetables can also be dried by using sun energy. Some coastal areas of the countries fishes are also dried by exposing to the sun. After drying, sometimes the dried products are converted into powder. However, these powders are very hygroscopic and should be packed in airtight. Mango powder is prepared by this technique, but expensive and not popular in India. Nowadays many artificial methods have been developed for removal of the moisture. The relationship between the moisture content and temperature of air during process is referred as Psychrometric relation. An instrument used to measure the humidity (Relative humidity) of the atmosphere is known as Psychrometer (Hygrometer). The residual moisture in vegetable should not be more than 6-8% and in fruits it should be in the range of 10-20%. The dried fruit can be used as such or after soaking while dried vegetable are usually soaked in water overnight and then cooked. Vegetable are considered to be dry when they become brittle. There are generally two drying methods for foods like 1) Natural drying and 2) Artificial drying. The preservation / stability of the dehydrated products is conferred by the abstraction of water, so that the product is unable to support the microbial growth, its chemical forms of deterioration is inhibited and the drastic reduction in the weight / volume facilitate easier handling and marketing. Among dehydrated products, dehydrated onions have largest share of 45%. India is the third largest exporter of the onions in the world next to the Netherland and Spain. Besides this, India exports dehydrated bell pepper, garlic and mushrooms.