eChapters

Karonda is an indigenous, under utilized fruit of India. It is a hardy multipurpose horticultural bush flourishing well without much care in arid and semi-arid areas. At present ,emphasis is being laid on protection and  production value of karonda plant. It is grown as hedge for beautification which  serves as one of the best bio-fencing materials because of  thorny  nature. It is also grown as an ornamental plant due to its beautiful cherry like fruits. Karonda plants are useful in many ways as detailed  below:
 
Fruit: Karonda fruit is a rich source of iron and contains a fair amount of vitamin C, and therefore very useful for curing of anaemia and has antiscorbutic properties. Enthomedically,  fruits are used as an astringent, antisorbutic and as a remedy for biliousness. Mature fruit contains high amount of pectin  and therefore, besides being used for making pickles and chutney, it can be exploited  for making jelly. Raw fruit can be used for making chatney.

Leaf: Karonda leaves are palatable and contain a fair amount of nutrient which are browsed by sheep, goats and camels in arid and semi arid areas.If fruits fall on ground, enrich soil by adding organic carbon and other mineral nutrients. It reduces evaporation  from  soil underneath due to dense foliage. Leaves  are used for feeding silk worm.  Leaf decoction is used against intermittent fever, diarrhoea, oral inflammation and ear ache.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) or Imli is also called  Indian Date. It is a large broad leaved, tropical tree found in India and many parts of Asia.  Tamarind is native to tropical Africa and grows wild throughout  Sudan. It was introduced to India so long ago that it is now reported as indigenous. Sometimes during  sixteenth century, it was introduced into America and today it is widely grown in Mexico.
 
There are large areas of marginal and waste lands, which are not suitable for cultivation of fruits like banana, citrus, sapota, litchi, mango, pomegranate etc., either due to poor quality of soil or lack of water resources. Such lands are suitable for  cultivation of underutilized fruit crops like tamarind which is not so popular among  farmers due to following reasons:

Plants yielding oilseeds are economically important in India next only to food crops and play an important role for sustainability of  cropping systems and soil health. Oilseeds scenario in the country underwent a sea change in  last fifteen years. India changed from net importer in  1980s to a net exporter  during  early 1990s. Again, it is back to net importer importing more than 40 % of its annual edible oil needs. Country’s demand for edible oils is  rising to double  the current level of 4% (as against productivity growth of 2% in 1986-2001) in  next 12 years (Hegde 2004). To meet  challenges of oilseeds production, there is  need to adopt multi-pronged strategy which involves enhancing production through area expansion and productivity improvement through improved technologies and value addition . As a progressive step in this direction of self sufficiency, there is  need to identify alternative oilseed trees/plants which can be grown in wastelands. There are more than 300 different kinds of tree species which bear seeds  rich in oil and  introduction of simarouba is an important step in this direction. National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Development (NOVOD) Board under Ministry of Agriculture  identified simarouba as a potential Tree Bearing Oilseed (TBO) for popularization in India and placed it in  first place in their list of importance.

Aonla or Indian Gooseberry (Emhlica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus embfica L.). belonging to family Euphorbiaceae. is an indigenous fruittree to Indian sub continent. It is one of the most important commercial crops suitable for marginal soils and various kinds of waste lands particularly salt affected lands. A lot of genetic variability is available in India with respect to growth and fruit quality characteristics of aonla. Almost all the budded varieties of aonla were selected from naturally occurring superior chance seedlings having in view their earliness, lateness, hardiness to adverse conditions, yield and superior fruit quality.

1-or successful aonla orchards, it is utmost necessary to have basic knowledge of various cultivars suitable for a particular set of environmental and soil conditions.

Genetic resources for food and agriculture are the biological basis of world food and nutrition security and they directly support the livelihood of people. Horticultural genetic resources are a few of biological assets available to resource-poor farmers to ensure sustainable production to improve livelihood options. Genetic diversity gives resource-poor farmers a low cost option to manage the shocks and vulnerability of production systems by its ability to adopt to changing environments. It is the foundation upon which plant breeding depends for the creation of new varieties and is, therefore, of critical public value for global food security. The rapid loss of genetic diversity (genetic erosion) is a worldwide concern and is particularly severe among crop landraces. Farmer’s varieties or landraces may contain co-adapted gene complexes that have evolved over decades and are the most valued genetic resources as they provide options for a range of climatic and edaphic stresses. Therefore, agricultural biodiversity has a critical public value for global food security (FAO, 1978).

The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands, popularly known as the Bay islands, consists of 572 islands, islets and rocks, situated off the Eastern coast of India. The Islands are covered from coast to coast with an almost impenetrable growth of luxuriant tropical rain forests. The luxuriant growth of dense forests with tangled mass of climbers, lianes, canes and plant communities provide an additional source of income. Many species of bamboos, bushes, shrubs and stunted trees have tremendous values (Mondal, et al 2000). Most of the diversity is still collected from wild forest habitats largely composed of trees, shrubs and other perennial vegetations. Underutilized fruits provide food, nutrition and sustenance to the natives. Broadly, such underutilized diversity in edible fruits falls into four categories (Groot et al 1993).

Giant granadilla, Passiflora quadrangularis L. (syn. P. macrocarpa M.T. Mast.) is the largest fruit in the genus Passiflora. With more than 450 species, Passiflora is the most important genus of family Passifloraceae. It is further divided into 24 subgenera (Killip, 1938). Most of the species producing an edible fruit belong to subgenera Passiflora and Tacsonia. Many species have ornamental interest because of unique and spectacular flowers, or are used for their sedative, antispasmodic, antibacterial, and insect-resistant properties.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L) is the most important fruit crop of cold arid regions of India. It is one of the most delicious of temperate fruits having pleasing flavour and truly one of the most delectable of the stone fruits.  Exceptional fruit quality consists of blending of sugar and acidity and strong apricot aroma. It has been appreciated and grown for thousands of years on slopes of mountains in Asia and at least two thousand years in Europe.  There are many uses of apricot. It is enjoyed as fresh fruit but a large portion of the production worldwide is preserved primarily by drying. In China, apricot was not only dried but also preserved by salting and smoking. In Japan, apricot (mume) flowers are revered for their beauty and are used since 7–8th century for ornamental purposes.

India produces all deciduous fruits including pome fruits (apple and pear) and stone fruits (peach, plum, apricot and cherry) in considerable quantity. These are mainly grown in the North-Western Indian States of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Himachal Pradesh (H.P.), Uttarakhand and in Uttar Pradesh. The North-Eastern Hills region, comprising of the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur and Sikkim also grow some of the deciduous fruits on a limited scale. The sub tropical region lies between 150 and 300 north of equator covering North Indian plains, the gangetic basin, large parts of North eastern state, western ghats, nilgiri regions etc. In this zone spring is generally frost free and chilling availability ranges from 50-500 hours. This region is not considered proper for temperate fruit growing but grows several low chilling varieties of peach, plum, pear etc. Deciduous fruits, such as peach and nectarine, require accumulated exposure to cool temperatures during winter dormancy for bud break and the resumption of normal growth the following spring. Minimum amount of accumulated cool temperature exposure needed for normal growth, which varies by cultivars, is referred to as the chilling requirement. Due to introduction and adaptation of low chilling cultivars of peach, plum and pear, they are also now being grown commercially in certain areas of the north Indian plains.

Plant genetic resources are the key components of crop improvement because of development of precision breeding system through biotechnological approaches as well as conventional system of breeding like selection and hybridization. Breeding system of hybridization is replaced by cybrid technology that facilitates transferring more qualitative and quantitative traits rapidly within incompatible genotypes. Aonla is mainly recognized for its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin-C (500-1500mg/100g), it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Dried fruits of aonla can be used in curing haemorrhage, diarrhea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Recently, aonla gained more popularity in arid and semi- arid region of the country because of its hardy nature, prolific bearing capacity and ability to grow under various adversities as a remunerative crop (Shukla et al.2002). Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder, used for curing different   human ailments. Fruit contains a chemical substance gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin, having antioxidant property.

Ber (Chinese date, Chinese fig or bore) (Ziziphus xylopyrus) is an important minor fruit of India. It is a hardy fruit tree cultivated all over India and also known as poor man’s fruit. It is widely cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Ber does well even under marginal growing conditions and provides quality yields at low cost (Shukla, 1996). Fruits are eaten fresh but the other forms like dried, candied and squash can also be prepared from ber. Stem bark, root and leaves have medicinal values. Leaves of ber are used as fodder in dry regions. Ber tree is a host plant for rearing the Tachardia laccad, a lac insect (Sharma and Kore, 1990).

The Cucurbitaceae family is characterized by long training viny stems. There is variation for flower size and colour among the species but all of them have similar general morphology. The species are open pollinated and self compatible. Most of them are either monoecious (eg. Cucurbita spp.) Or andromonoecious (e.g. common in melon). Other species show gynomonoecy, androgynomonoecy, androecy, gynoecy, hermaphrodite or dioecy. Chow-chow is the only member of the Cucurbitaceae that is viviparous, contains single seed and propagated by planting whole fruit. The Indian gene centre has rich diversity in genetic resources of ridgegourd (Luffa acutangula), bottlegourd (Lagenaria siceraria), bittergourd (Momordica charantia), ashgourd (Benincasa hispida), snakegourd (Trichosanthes anguina), pointed gourd- parval (Trichosanthes dioica), pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) and roundgourd (Praecitrullus vulgaris). Cucurbits are of tremendous economic importance and are cultivated throughout the world from tropical to sub-temperate zones. China, Turkey, India and Iran are important cucurbit growing countries. In India, this diversity is concentrated in Indo-Gangatic plains, north eastern region, north western Himalayas, the Western and Eastern Ghats and sporadically in the tribal dominant belts of central India.  More diversity occurs in Cucurbita spp. in the north east as also for ashgourd, bottlegourd while for Luffa, it is more concentrated in the eastern peninsular tract.

Indian arid zone is one of the largest sub-tropical deserts of the world, of which 20 % is arid and the remaining semi-arid with varied habitats. The hot arid region is spread over 31.7 million ha mainly in Rajasthan (19.6 m ha), Gujarat (6.22 m ha), Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Rajasthan is the largest state in the country covering approximately 34.2 m ha geographical area out of which 27.1 m ha (79.08 % of total area) is laying in arid and semi-arid climate, spread over 21 out of 32 districts. Western part of Rajasthan is under hot arid climate (Thar Desert) and it extends from 24^º 37’ to 30^º 10’ N latitude and 690 29’ to 76^º 05’ E longitude. Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jhunjhunnu, Jodhpur, Nagour, Pali and Sikar districts of Western Rajasthan account for 63.4 % area of  hot arid realm of India. Apart from these, about 10 % area each of Sirohi, Ajmer and Jaipur districts are also in arid region. Punjab and Haryana bound it in North and Gujarat in South. The Aravali hill ranges provide a natural boundary with semi-arid Eastern Rajasthan. In the West, it has a long international boundary with Pakistan.

The Cucurbitaceae family consists of nearly 100 genera and over 750 species. Although most of them have Old World origin (Whitaker and Davis, 1962), many species originated in the New World and at least seven genera have origins in both hemispheres (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983). There is considerable genetic diversity within the family and the range of adaptation for cucurbit species includes tropical and subtropical regions, arid deserts and temperate locations. A few species are adaptable to production at elevations as high as 2000 m. The genetic diversity in cucurbits extends to both vegetative and reproductive characteristics. There is considerable range in the monoploid (x) chromosome number (Jeffrey, 1990) including 7 (Cucumis sativus), 11 (Citrullus spp., Momordica spp., Lagenaria spp., Sechium spp., and Trichosanthes spp.), 12 (Benincasa hispida, Coccinia spp., Cucumis spp. other than C. sativus, and Praecitrullus fistulosus), 13 (Luffa spp.), and 20 (Cucurbita spp.).
 
Archaeological evidence indicated that cucurbits were present in ancient and prehistoric cultures. Lagenaria was associated with man as early as 12,000 BC in Peru (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983). Archaeological expeditions in the Oaxaca region of Mexico have reported that Cucurbita pepo was associated with man as early as 8500 BC and cultivated by 4050 BC (Esquinas-Alcazar and Gulick, 1983). Written Chinese records describing the use of cultivated cucurbits have been found as early as 685 BC (Herklots, 1972).

Common names:  Sessile joyweed, Joyweed, Dwarf copperleaf (English), Geluti (Hindi), Ponnanganni green (Tamil) Latin names: Alternanthera sessilis (L) Syn: Alternanthera nodiflora R. Br., Gomphrena sessilis (L), llecebrum sessile (L) Linnaeus belongs to family Amaramlnaceaes.

Habit and Habitat
 
Perennial herbs, pantropical, damp shady areas, swamps, pond margins, shallow ditches, road sides, low-lying waste lands, damp pastures, cultivated areas. In New Guinea, «a plant of damp places; ditches, wet headlands, roadsides; sometimes a weed of plantations, particularly at altitudes of 1500 m or higher. From near sea level to over 2000m» (Henty & Pritchard, 1975). In Tonga, «occasional as a waste area weed» (Yuncker, 1959).

Malvaceae, the mallow family, carries herbs, shrubs or trees comprising about 75 genera and perhaps as many as 1,500 species. Hibiscus and Abelmoschus are two important genuses under this plant family. Several species of plants of potential uses come under these two genera about which limited publications are available. 

Hibiscus

Hibiscus is a large genus of about 200-220 species of flowering plants in  Malvaceae, native to warm temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants and woody shrubs and small trees. The leaves are alternate, simple, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin. The flowers are large, conspicuous, trumpet-shaped, with five petals, ranging from white to pink, red, purple or yellow, and from 4-15 cm broad. The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule splits open at maturity.

The Mother Nature bestowed humanity with about 250,000 known plant species and perhaps the same or may be higher number of unknown plant species. Out of this treasure, 80,000 plant species are edible but human beings have probably exploited about 3,000 of these species for food and was cultivating about 150 on a commercial scale. However, largely human beings consumed only 20 different kinds of crops the world over and four of which viz. rice, wheat, maize and potato are supplying about 60 % of total calories. Under the circumstances, the food crops base even for well-known crops are shrinking at an alarming rate and in this process, many species have extincted from man’s food bowl. While doing so, we have considerably reduced the range of organic compounds that we now consume, thus making ourselves vulnerable to various stresses. Realising  importance of diverse food base in our life, thinking is going on among people of all lifestyles that more and more crops particularly those, which are known to be edible but have remained as “under-utilised crops”, should be brought into cultivation. This will ensure both food and nutritional security of people. Among these, tuber crops constitute an important crops group, which was sustaining food security much before agriculture came into existence.

Lilies, both Asiatic lilies and Oriental lilies, along with their hybrids are cultivated in very small scale in India, but are classified under high value crops (based on per stem value). Lilies are also capital intensive crops, in terms of high cost of infrastructure required for protected cultivation and bulbs which are imported. This article deals with growing conditions, varieties and other cultural aspects, as well as, practical tips from field conditions, from areas where Liliums are commercially grown in India.

Lilies are grouped under “high value flowers” in commercial floriculture parlance and are generally regarded under minor crops in production terms (on quantity produced or on area under production or on per sq.meter yield per year basis).  Lily is in fact a more productive and lucrative crop, specifically so in terms of income (on per sq. meter per year basis) than any other cut flower grown for commercial purposes in the open or protected cultivation in India.

While setting up a garden or landscaping an area, the natural floristic wealth is ignored very often. But many of those flora are much adapted to prevailing soil and climatic conditions of the area. Plants with attractive flowers or foliage could be retained to maintain the natural appearance as well as to reduce cost of landscaping.Very familiar plants of our surroundings having good ornamental value are discussed in this chapter.

Goanese Ipecacuanha 
Naregamia alata commonly known as Goanese Ipecacuanha is a member of family Meliaceae. It is known as Tinparni in Hindi, Triparnika in Sanskrit, Nilanarakam in Malayalam, Nilanreagam in Tamil and Nelanaringa in Kannada. Common name was derived from its use of roots in treatment of malaria. Vernacular name, Nilanarakam originated from its morphological resemblance to members of Rutaceae. 

Mahua botanically known as Bassia latifolia Roxb, (Hindi name: Mahua, Family: Sapotaceae) is an economical and multipurpose tree. Its flowers, fruits and oil obtained from seeds are eaten in various ways. Corolla commonly called mahua flowers is a rich source of sugar, containing appreciable amount of vitamins and minerals. Flowers are used for preparation of distilled liquors and potable spirits. Flowers and spent flowers (after fermentation) are also used as feed for livestock. Fruits are eaten as raw or cooked. Fruit pulp can be used as a source of sugar for alcoholic fermentation, whereas dry fruit husk can be used for preparation of absolute alcohol. Seed is a good source of oil. Amount of oil obtained from seeds is higher than many oil seed crops and oil seed-bearing trees. Oil obtained from kernel is used for edible purpose and used for preparation of vegetable oil. In Mahua oil, linoleic and unsaturated fatty acids are found which are useful for cardiac patients because it reduces cholesterol content in blood serum. Mahua oil is used in manufacture of soap, lubricating grease, fatty alcohols and candles. Mahua fat is a rich source of palmitic acid used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Mahua seeds can also be used for preparation of defatted flour, which has great potential in bakery products. Saponin obtained after extraction has industrial and commercial applications. Cake obtained after extraction of oil is used as manure and has insecticidal properties. The trees provide quality timber wood for various uses. Every part of Mahua yields an economic product of great potential value; hence it is a very useful tree.

Chironji or Charoli (Buchanania lanzan Spreng Family: Anacardiaceae) is an excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. In wasteland development and Dryland horticulture, it assumes great significance due to multifarious uses and capacity to withstand adverse climatic conditions. At present, it is growing under forest condition as an under exploited fruit and gives monitory reward to tribal community of country and seems to be a boon for them. It is a valuable species found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests (Singh, 1982). Flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and is largely eaten raw or roasted and oily kernels are the most important part and are used in preparation of sweet meats and puddings (Singh, 1982). Mesocarp of fruit is edible and cherished by children (Munde et al, 2003). Kernel is highly nutritious and rich in protein (18.00 %) and yields sweet oil, which can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Kernel contains 33.50 % oil, 1.90 % of which is unsaponifiable. Saponifiable part contained 20.00 % of linoleic acid. Chironji oil is non-repellant and non-toxic and is suitable for human consumption (Banerjee and Jain, 1988). Hemawathy and Prabhakar (1988) reported that total kernel lipid extracted from chironji was 65.60 % of dry kernel and consisted of 90.40 % neutral lipids, 3.4 % glycolipids and 6.2 % phospholipids. Kernel can be used for preparation of sweets. It provides quality timber wood for various uses.

Moringa (Moringa oleifera) is one of the most popular perennial vegetables grown in South India. It is commonly grown as a unique vegetable. Its fruits, leaves and flowers are equally useful. They are cut into slices and used in the preparation of a number of food items. Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated species of a monogeneric family, the Moringaceae. The tree is indigenous to North West India. It is found wild in the sub Himalayan tract from the river Chenab eastward to the Sarda and in Tarai tract of Uttaranchal in India. Moringa is native to the sub-Himalayan tracts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. This rapidly growing tree (also known as horseradish tree, drumstick tree, benzolive tree, kelor, marango, mlonge, moonga, mulangay, nébéday, saijhan, sajna or Ben oil tree, radish tree, West Indian ben), was utilized by ancient Romans, Greeks and Egyptians. It is now widely cultivated and has become naturalized in many locations in tropics. It is a perennial softwood tree with timber of low quality, which for centuries was advocated for traditional medicine and industrial uses. The name drumstick is derived from the pod shape resembling slender and curved stick used for beating the drum. Fruits also resemble the siliqua of radish and hence the name “radish tree”.

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is a tropical herbaceous plant extensively cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, parts of China and Pakistan.  Country of origin is not known with certainity, it is either of Chineese or Indian origin. India ranks first in area (1.49 lakh ha.) and production (5.27 lakh tonnes.) in the world and it is grown in most of the states in the country.  Major turmeric growing states are Andhra Pradesh (56,000 ha.), Orissa (23,000 ha.), Tamilnadu (17,000 ha.), Assam (12,000 ha.), West Bengal (11,000 ha.) Maharashtra (6,000 ha.)  Karnataka (6,000 ha.) and Kerala (3,000 ha.).  Andhra Pradesh ranks first in area and production in the country. Area under this crop is increasing in North Eastern States.

Turmeric belongs to family Zingiberaceae and genus Curcuma. Genus Curcuma has 42 species, of which Curcuma longa is extensively cultivated for culinary purposes, Curcuma aromatica for flavour and recently Curcuma amada (mango ginger) for preparation of chutneys. Turmeric is mainly cultivated for under ground rhizomes, rich in curcumin. Turmeric is traditionally used for medicinal, religious, culinary purposes and also as a cosmetic and dye (Shah 1997). Recent reports in controlling human cancer has given renewed interest on the crop. In Ayurveda, turmeric is regarded as aromatic, a stimulant tonic, carminative and anti helminthic. Essential oil of turmeric is antiseptic and is used in treating gall stones and gall complaints (Pruthi 1976).

Plant family    :    Apiaceae
Synonyms      
English    :     Puerto Rican  Coriander, Black Benny, Saw leaf herb, Mexican coriander, Saw tooth coriander, Spiny coriander, Fitweed
Hindi    :    Bhandhania,Bhandhanya
Sanskrit    :    Phiranga
Kannada    :    Paramgi

Origin and Distribution

The plant is native to the Caribbean islands occuring from S.Mexico to Panama, Columbia, Bolivia, Brazil and Cuba to Trinidad. It was introduced to many tropical and subtriopical countries  where it is used as a substitute for coriander.

Atuna racemosa subspecies racemosa is shown to be a species with many uses throughout its range from Malaysia to Melanesia. The principle uses described are the seed oil used as anti-inflamatory massage oil and for hair dressing, the seed pulp that is used for caulking and varnishing boats, the wood for house construction, and many parts of the plant as ingredients of local medicines. The medicinal uses of this species deserve further study since it has been shown to have both anti-bacterial and anti-inflamatory action. It is also uncertain whether its distribution over the Pacific is natural or human caused.

Atuna racemosa Rafin. is a widely distributed tree species that ranges from the Malay Peninsula through Malesia, Australasia and to the Pacific islands as far as Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. As with many useful plants, its natural distribution is uncertain because it has been transported around from island to island during the various migrations of the Pacific islanders.

Euphorbiaceae is a large family that includes 310-320 genera and 7500 species (Walters and Keil, 1996). Two centers of distribution for this family are tropical America and tropical Africa. The family has an extremely variable life span and habits are found as annual and perennial herbs, vines, succulents, shrubs and tall trees. Members of the Euphorbiaceæ are found in many habitats, from deserts to rain forests. Euphorbiaceae family has genera used as unconventional foods

In Mexico, 826 species under Euphorbiaceae family are found with 50 genera including those introduced from elsewhere and cultivated. A subfamily with a larger number of genera is Acalyphoieae (16), while Euphorbioideae has more species (306), and Crotonoideae has more specific endemism (Martinez-Gordillo et al, 2002). Some of these plants are used in traditional medicine, in oil industry, as ornamental plants, and as food additive. A few examples of its uses include edible wax from Euphorbia antisyphilitica (candelilla) that coats fruits and vegetables to retard water evaporation. Jatropha dioica is a small shrub that is used in traditional medicine and Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poisenetta) an ornamental plant.

Commercial capers are the immature flower buds, which have been pickled in vinegar or preserved in granular salt; they are used raw or cooked as condiment in different recipes. Semi- mature fruits (caper berries) and young shoots with small leaves may also be use as a condiment in salads or as an appetizer before meal. Capers and caper plants, wild and/or cultivated, are used in almost all the area of Capparis subgenus Capparis, extending from West Africa to the Norfolk islands in the Pacific, and most of the species are of alimentary or medicinal interest (Rivera, Inocencio, Obón & Alcaraz, 2003).

Capparis is a term coined by Theophrastus (4th cent. BC) and validated by Dioscorides (1st cent. AD) (Êáððáñéò), although it seems not to have come into wide use until the spread of the Arab world.
 
Caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to Classical Latin Capparis “caper”. Latin Capparis, in turn, was loaned from Greek kapparis [êáððáñéò], whose origin (as that of the plant) is unknown but probably West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros [Êáðñïò]), where capers grow abundantly.

Kair (Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew, is an under-exploited, drought hardy, multipurpose, perennial, woody shrub or small tree found in hot arid regions of many regions of the world. It is a many branched, leafless and spinose plant capable of growing in different habitats. Due to its xerophytic adaptive nature, the plant grows successfully under harsh climatic conditions of arid regions. The immature fruits are used as fresh vegetables and also in the preparation of pickles. Dehydrated fruits are used in off season as vegetables either alone or in combination with other dried vegetables. Dehydrated kair is one of the important ingredients of ‘panchkuta’, a dehydrated mixture of sangri, kair, kachri, kumat and kamal kakri. However, mature unripe fruits without processing are unpalatable as these contain high concentration of glucosinolates. Ripe fruits are sweet and acrid and enjoyed by children in natives.

Although the thriving dye industry in many countries throughout the world is now predominantly serviced by synthetic dyes, the knowledge of the plants used to produce natural dyes still survives among some dyers, who use plant dyes to some extent. Nonetheless this indigenous knowledge is rapidly being lost as increasingly less information is being passed on to succeeding generations. Thus several countries are taking steps to revitalize this natural dyes industry. In this article the history of natural dye plants is presented; several plants from selected countries, which are used in the dyeing process are documented, together with some general methods of dye production and fabric dyeing; pattern production and the chemical constituents of some of these plants. The potential for the sustainable utilization of this important ecofriendly renewable natural resource is discussed.

The use of natural dyes lost ground together with the old traditional dye methods towards the end of 19th century soon after the synthetic dyes came to the market (Gilbert and Cooke 2001). Only artisans, craftsmen, and green–minded companies continued dyeing with natural dyes (Hartl 1997). The first recorded synthetic dye is picric acid produced in 1770’s from the interaction of indigo and nitric acid. The synthetic dye industry is considered to have started when Perkins synthesised mauveine (mauve) in 1856 in the UK (Hancock 1997). With the passage of time, it was observed that synthetic dyes used by the textile industry are a source of environmental pollution (Seker et al. 2007) and they produce allergic, carcinogenic and detrimental effects on the health of humans (Singh and Singh 2002, Mahanta and Tiwari 2005). The synthetic dyes were preferred by the industry because of their simpilicity in the use and all colors could be produced easily, but the problem was the waste deposition which is a major cause of environmental pollution. The solvents used during dying reduce the problem to some extent but the waste water purification needs extra effort and money (Shreve and Brink 1985). As against this, the natural dyes are not only harmless to the humans but also cause far less environmental pollution, and have distinctive washing and sunlight fade–resistant characteristics (Mert et al. 1992, Angelini et al. 1997, Kim and Park 2006). For this purpose, the textile industries have started rethinking about the natural dyes and are trying to find sustainable as well as non–toxic alternatives to synthetic dyes for a growing textile market.

Social civilization of the Neolithic settlements of primitive human communities contributes substantial initiation of cultivation and an approach towards conservation of useful plant species for sustainable food habits. Several archaeological attestations confirm that Homo sapiens at the end of the Paleolithic period had knowledge on many useful plants derived from food gathering techniques. Growth of human populations beyond the size that hardly supports hunting and gathering for food materials may perhaps be the probable reason that forced the Neolithic primitive nomadic communities for settlement and emergence of crude forms of cultivation.

Bael is one of the oldest and useful trees of India. The bael fruit, (Aegle marmelos Correa) is also called Bengal quince (John and Stevenson, 1979), Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple, bel, belwa, sriphal and maredoo in India. Among the indigenous fruits of India, Bael occupies an important place. All the parts of bael tree have their own importance. It is a medicinally and economically important fruit crop with immense potential for extending its cultivation in semi-arid degraded land. Mention of bael cultivation in Indian literature dates back to 800 B.C.  Bael fruit is available in almost all states of India but most abundantly available in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

The Bael fruit is one of the most nutritious fruits. It contains 61.5 g water, 1.8 g protein, 0.39 g fat, 1.7 g mineral, 31.8 g carbohydrate, 55 mg carotene, 0.13 mg thiamin, 1.19 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin and 8 mg vitamin C / 100 gm of edible portion (Gopalan et al., 1971). It contains the highest riboflavin content among fruits. Marmelosin is, most probably, the therapeutically active principle of bael fruit. It is isolated as a colorless crystaline compound (Dixit and Dutt., 1932).The astringent taste of bael fruit is due to phenolic compounds. The medicinal properties of bael have been dealt with in Charaka Samhita (Aiyar, 1956). Bael fruit has curative, pesticidal and nutritive properties. The leaves of bael are used for worship of Lord Shiva. Green bael fruits are used for preparing Murabba (preserve) generally taken for stomach ailments. Bael fruits have an immense potential for processing into products like squash, jam, toffee, candy and syrups for internal and foreign market.

Carambola (Averrhoa carambola) is a fruit of warm tropical and sub- tropical areas of the world. The fruit is oblong with three to six longitudinal ribs, resulting in a star shaped cross section when cut. Usually they have five ribs which give rise to common name of ‘five corners’ or ‘star fruit’. The tree is medium-sized, attractive and evergreen growing to about 10m. The fruit has emerged as an interesting addition to the table fruit, not only as fresh fruit, but also for its juice, decorative uses and sherbet qualities.

Tropical plum (Spondias mombin) also known as yellow mombin, hog plum, and java plum, is a deciduous fruit species widely spread in the tropics. This species is evaluated for its fruit as an unconventional source of vitamins A and C, which are used for making juices, ice creams and jellies. This plant also has medical importance.
 
It is a graceful tree of the family Anacardiaceae, a native of tropical America. It was introduced into India for edible fruit and also to serve as fencing. The fruit flesh (48% on  weight of fruit) contains: total solids 11.47%, protein 1.38%, fat 0.57%, acids (astartaric) 1.50%, reducing sugars 9.41%, sucrose nil, fibre 1.17%, and mineral matter 0.66%. The seeds are eaten when tender. The fruit is a good source of minerals and vitamin B1 and C.

The circumstances concerning the diffusion of  main cultivated citrus from their places of origin in Asia are studied here, showing that the citron (Citrus medica L.) was the only one known in Ancient times in Europe, while the lemon (C. limon [L.] Osbeck), lime (C. aurantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle), pomelo (C. maxima [Burm.] Merr.) and sour orange (C. × aurantium L.) were introduced to Europe by the Muslims via the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, and that the grapefruit (C. × aurantium L. [C. paradisi Macfad.]), mandarin (C. reticulata Blanco) and sweet orange (C. × aurantium L.) arrived to the West between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries as a result of the trade with the British and Portuguese colonies.

The common fig, (Ficus carica L.) is a fruit of warm temperate zone. It is one of the oldest fruits known to man and is mentioned by well known Greek writers Homer and Plato. Mention about this fruit is in the earliest chapter of Bible. Figs belong to family Moraceae, which include many tropical fruits and ornamental species. The fruit is known botanically as ‘syconium’ in which the flowers are borne on the inner walls of a hollow receptacle. It is one of the most salt and drought tolerant amongst fruit trees. Fig is a moderate sized deciduous tree in subtropics but performs as evergreen in tropics. Branches are irregular, shoots develop at base of trunk, leaves are very broad, ovate and long stalked. Fruits mostly long stalked, pear shaped with a velvety or glabrous skin, yellow, brown, purplish or black in colour. 

Guava is one of the most common fruits grown widely throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Guava is hardy in nature, prolific bearing and highly remunerative even without much care (Mitra and Bose, 1990). Because of its excellent adaptability and exceptional performance in the tropics, it is regarded as the ‘apple of tropics’.

In India, guava is the fifth most important fruit crop in terms of area and production. It is cultivated over 1.51 lakh ha area with a total production of 18.0 lakh tones (Chadha, 2001). It is rich in pectin and used for jelly making. It is useful as table fruit and also for processing purpose.

It is known by different names viz., madhuri (Assamese), peyara (Bengali), phanas (Gujrati), amrood (Hindi), sebe (Kannad), soh-priya (Khasi-Meghalaya), komperam (Garo-Meghalaya), pera (Malayalam), peru (Marathi), pijuli (Oriya), amrud (Punjabi), koyya (Tamil) and jama (Telugu).

Star gooseberry also known as Otaheite gooseberry   (Phyllanthus acidus Skeels) is an important underexploited fruit of family Euphorbiaceae. Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg., Phyllanthus acidissimus (Blanco) Muell. Arg., Cicca acida Merr., Cicca disticha L. are the synonyms of star gooseberry. Food value of star gooseberry / 100g of edible portion is given below.

Hog-plum also known as wild mango (Spondias pinnata), is native to tropical Asia. A small, aromatic deciduous tree, up to 27m height and 2.5m in girth, with a clear bole of 16m, is found wild or cultivated almost throughout India, ascending up to an altitude of 1500m in the Himalayas; also found in the Andamans. Bark thick, aromatic, smooth, grey; leaves imparipinnate, 20-60cm long, leaflets 5-11, 22-28cm long, ovate-oblong, elliptic or elliptic-oblong, more or less oblique with mango-like smell; flowers whitish or greenish white, polygamous, in large, terminal panicles; fruits in terminal clusters of 10-15, drupes yellow-green or rich olive-green, mottled with yellow and black, smooth, ovoid, 4-7cm long; seeds 1-3, one being perfect, oblong-elliptic. Fruit is extremely sour, even when completely ripe.

The extensive use of improved types of vegetable crops has led to a  situation that the indigenous types are virtually disappearing from ecosystems creating a vacuum in crop biodiversity. Biodiversity of genes, species, ecosystems and habitats will remain under threat. Habitats will be decreased and fragmented, endangering many indigenous, rare, endemic and specialist species populations and ecosystem functions, although generalist and invasive species will continue to spread. Therefore, loss of biodiversity can be considered at three scales: genes, species or populations and habitats or ecosystems. Maintaining thriving natural systems is essential not only for economic or ethical reasons, but also for ecological, social, recreational, educational and aesthetic reasons (Gomez, 1996). Most of these are easy to grow, resistant to pests and diseases, hardy and acceptable to local taste. They are rich in carbohydrate, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals; hence the diets could be diversified to meet the nutritional requirements of the people in the country. The lack of micronutrients, including certain vitamins, minerals and other components needed for a healthy diet, is a pervasive and growing threat throughout the world.

Introduction

Tripura is situated between 22^º56 ‘to 24^º32’ N latitude and 91^º10’ to 92^º21’ E latitude with tropic of cancer passing through it. The total geographical area of state is about 10,491 Sq.Km of which 58.90 percent area is under forest cover. More than 75 percent of the population either directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. The small and marginal farmers contribute about 90 per cent of total farming community and the average size of land holding is 0.97 ha (1990-91) in comparison to 1.25 ha (1976-77), which is the lowest among the seven other North Eastern states.
 
The state weather is characterized by warm and humid subtropical climate with three distinct seasons viz., summer, monsoon and winter with three different cropping seasons like khariff, rabi, summer and jhum cultivation in forest during pre monsoon and late monsoon periods. This state has many rivers out of which the important ones are Juri, Deo, Manu, Dalai, Thowai, Haora, Mahari, Burigang and Gomati which are mainly seasonal. Tripura receives an average rainfall of 2065 mm.The monsoon breaks in May – June and continues for about 4.5-5.0 months.

Promotion of perennial crops is a good alternative for food security since they offer more consistant, year-round production without any break. Agathi and Chekkurmanis are the two nutritive perennial greens that can be easily grown in hot and humid tropical climate.

The effect of oil sludge on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea (L.) were evaluated using four levels of pollution viz: 0%; 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% of the 6kg soil and three levels of N.P.K. fertilizer (20:10:10) viz: low level (0.005 kg), normal level (0.01 kg) and high level (0.015kg). These treatments were imposed after the soil analysis were carried out on the site.  The results obtained show that pollution has a significant effect (P < 0.05) on the growth and performance of Celosia argentea, despite the different levels of fertilizer application with second level of pollution (0.25%) being the critical point. Thus, pollution retards the growth of this crop drastically beyond the critical level with Celosia argentea showing more tolerance to pollution at the post-application treatment than the pre-application treatment.

It is therefore suggested that land users should not embark on cultivating land that has an oil sludge pollution level beyond 0.25% of soil.

My first experience with Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. f. (Araceae) was one of personal cultural food use. I recently came to Hawai‘i for my Ph.D. studies, and although I am Vietnamese, it was in Hawai‘i that I began experiencing many Vietnamese foods I never knew as a child growing up in the northeastern U.S. I thank the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai‘i that became my aunties and uncles from whom I learned a great deal about my roots and the food of Vietnam. I listened to their stories and teachings while we ate together at holiday and community events, reflecting on my childhood, and considering the effects of globalization on the movement of people and plants, I have come to understand the extraordinary significance of that seemingly mundane first experience of eating C. gigantea. In this paper, I describe the botany, ethnobotany,  including a case study of C. gigantea usage in Hawai‘i and the implications for biocultural diversity, and examples for increased utilization of C. gigantea.

The Begonia family has a tropical and subtropical distribution in America, Asia and Africa. With approximately 100 species and 10,000 cultivated hybrids, they are very important as ornamental plants.A few reports describe Begonia as edible; the highest number of these species is found in America, some in Asia, and we have only one report of an edible Begonia in Africa.

The Begonia family has a tropical and subtropical distribution in America, Asia and Africa. There are approximately 600 species in America, and the same number in Asia.

Africa, including Madagascar and the Mascarenes, has 158 reported species, one third of which are endemic to Madagascar and associated Isles (Mascarenes, Seychelles and Comoros). Only ones species, B. grandis Dryander, is widely distributed in temperate regions, extending northwards near Beijing (Forrest & Hollingsworth, 2003; Plana, 2003).

Kangkong also known as water spinach, water convolvulus and swamp cabbage is an important leaf vegetable in South East Asia including Taiwan and Malaysia. It is a semi aquatic herbaceous plant having trailing or floating habit; sometimes it is biennial or perennial. Normally the main shoot of this plant trails horizontally and lateral shoots bear leaves and flowers and trail like the main shoot. Stem is hollow and leaves are arranged alternate. The succulent foliage is light green and leaves are elliptic or ovate oblong and cordate at the base. Flowers are 2.5 to 5 cm long, white or pale purple with dark purple eye, solitary or in five flowered cyme. Fruit is a capsule, ovoid and smooth with 2 to 4 seeds. This crop is ideally suited to areas where water stagnation is a problem and is found trailing on moist soil or mud along margins of stagnant ponds, streams, marshes and wet rice fields. It is sometimes found floating on water surface. At every node, it produces a number of adventitious roots.

Tree tomato belongs to the family solanaceae, genus Cyphomandra and species betacea. The Cyphomandra genus is made up of about 30 species. Shaw (1996) has reported that Cyphomandra genus consists of 35 species confined to the New World tropics. They were earlier described under the genus Solanum. They can be separated from Solanum  by several characters, the most important being anther characters. In Cyphomandra in the anther the connective is thickened and expanded dorsally. As a result, it is clearly differentiated from the anther thecae, which is thin walled and papillose.

Economically important plant in this genus is Cyphomandra betacea. Other important related species are Cyphomandra casana (Casana), C. craccifolia (Mountain tomato) and C. fragrans (Guava tamarillo). It has got distant affinity with Lycopersicon esculentum (Tomato), Physalis ixocarpa (Tomatillo), P. peruviana (Cape gooseberry), Solanum muricatum (Pepino Dulce) and S. sessiliflorum (Cocona).

Palms are monocot species, belonging to the family Palmae (Arecaceae). They are perennial and distinguished by having woody stems. Coconut, Arecanut and Oil palm are the major crops coming under this group. Palmyra is a naturally occurring palm in many parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Bihar and West Bengal States. Palmyrah is utilized by the locals for tapping inflorescence sap and for fruit. Palms of India are represented by 20 genera and about 96 species among which 24 species belonging to nine genera are endemic to India. The largest genus, Calamus with 44 species is followed by Phoenix seven, Pinanga five and the rest with less than five species each. The genera Borassus, Salaca, Livistona, Nypa, Hyphaene and Ptychoraphis are represented by a single species each. In addition, C. nucifera and A. catechu are extensively cultivated as plantation crops. They have almost naturalized in parts of Kerala and Andaman Nicobar Islands. Except P. sylvestris, C. urens and B. flabellifer which are widespread in peninsular India, the rest are of restricted distribution in specialized eco-geographical regions of the country. The forests of Andaman–Nicobar islands (13 genera, 24 species), northeastern and eastern Himalayan region (12 genera, 36 species) and the Western Ghats (7 genera, 30 species) are major centres of palm concentration. Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa are fringe mangrove species occurring in salt marshes of Sundar-bans and Andaman–Nicobar islands. P. paludosa is also found in Orissa.

This chapter demonstrates that modern advances in horticultural crop development may benefit from not only knowledge derived from extant ethnographic groups but extinct peoples as well. More than 18,000 archaeological sites were identified, and a dozen rock shelter sites investigated in the Zeekoe Valley, Upper Karoo, South Africa. A baseline for understanding potential contribution of plants to the Zeekoe Valley diet is crucial for developing models of land use and mobility patterns for Late Stone Age (LSA) inhabitants, particularly since  ethnographically known foragers in Botswana, some 800 km to the North, are as much as 80 % depend on plant foods for their survival.  Since native foraging groups are long extinct in this semi-arid region with abundant natural springs, a rigorous investigation of botanical and ethnohistoric literature forms the groundwork for field investigations where direct ethnographic observation is no longer an option. First, edible species in the study area are identified in the literature. They are then sought on the ground with the aid of local informants whose families reside in the valley for generations. It appears as though some knowledge of local plants gained from native foragers 150 years ago or more have remained in Afrikaans families passed down from landowning parent to child. On the ground, collection and middle range experimentation were followed by basic nutritional analysis.  These measures were then used to compare foraging efficiency to measures from extant foraging groups.

African leaf vegetables (ALVs) are vegetable species utilized for their leaves and have become a part of the African tradition. This is a dynamic concept that is changing with the African culture and the term ALV embraces not only indigenous, but also indigenised species. These species are very nutritious, and contain high levels of pro-vitamin A and iron. ALVs are often more hardy than the introduced “modern” vegetables. The important role that ALVs have played in African livelihood strategies has been ignored, especially in the last half of the twentieth century. This led to ALVs being seen as a low-status crop, but this perception  started to change during the last two decades. ALVs are entering the commercial market and regaining its equal status in many African countries. ALVs are mostly used as an ingredient in relishes and soups to accompany starchy staples and sometimes meat.

ALVs include species cultivated in farmer fields and home gardens, like  pumpkins and cowpeas, and species harvested from  wild and fallow lands, like eru and cleome. Certain cultivated species have only recently been domesticated after a long history of wild harvesting.  Currently, ALVs are mainly cultivated using traditional farm practices with almost no African countries having formal seed systems. After years of neglect by formal research, more and more research institutions are initiating research on ALVs. Amaranth, cleome, corchorus, cowpea, pumpkins, nightshades, african eggplant, moringa, ethiopian kale, roselle, bitterleaf, taro, slenderleaf and water spinach are listed as the most prominent ALVs in Africa.