eChapters

5.1 Introduction

In recent decades, human induced changes in climate of the earth have the focus of scientific and social attention. The most imminent of this is the increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) namely, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the atmosphere. The concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased markedly by 30%, 145% and 15%, respectively as a result of human activity since 1750, the era of Industrial Revolutions (IPCC, 2007). Between 1750 and 2005, the concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere has increased from 280 to 379 ppm, 715 to 1774 ppb and from 270 to 319 ppb, respectively (IPCC, 2007). However, there was a steep increase during the recent years i.e. 70% increase of GHGs between 1970 and 2004.

Abstract

Seaweeds are the large marine algae that grow almost exclusively in the shallow waters at the edge of the oceans. Seaweeds are rich sources of many bioactive compounds and nutraceuticals. These factors are considered under two categories: Seaweed phytochemicals and Seaweed polysaccharides. They are rich in soluble dietary fibers, proteins, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, phytochemicals, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, with low caloric value. The red, brown and green seaweeds have been shown to have therapeutic properties for health and disease management. Usually they are only used as gelling agent and stabilizers in the food and pharmaceutical industries, but current research has revealed their potential medicinal uses against many diseases like cancer, allergy, diabetes, oxidative stress, inflammation, thrombosis, obesity, hypertensive and other degenerative ailments. In line with other natural foods like fruits, vegetables and grains, there has been marked interest within the scientific community to assess which fractions of seaweeds may be linked to the historically observed health benefits. As consumer health and nutrition become more influential in the food industry, the use of seaweed as an ingredient is on the rise in product development. For several centuries there has been a traditional use of seaweeds as food in China, Japan and the Republic of Korea. This review undertakes successful exploration of potential of seaweed gums as an functional ingredient in a number of food applications. This addition has the potential to enhance the nutritional quality of a product and hence human health.

ABSTRACT

Wetlands play an important role in provisioning of numerous goods and services for mankind. However, the type and the quantum of ecological services differs amongst wetlands. In the present study, we documented the various plant resources used by the riparian communities of two well-recognized wetlands, Dhir beel and Diplai beel, located in Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. The findings of study indicate that the riparian communities are dependent on wetlands for various purposes. The riparian communities uses 48 plant species as vegetables, fruits, fodder, fuel wood, medicine, roofing materials, craft making materials, bio-fertilizer and fish poisoning agent. Some of the plant species such as Enhydra fluctuans, Lasia spinosa, Colocasia esculenta, Diplazium esculentum, Ipomoea aquatica and Monocharia hastata aresold in the village market as local vegetables. The wetlands generate income for the riparian communities and save cashof many households settled plant near the wetland. Nevertheless, this study also revealed that some near the wetland resources are declining due to population pressure, encroachment near the wetlands, deforestation and over-exploitation of the wetland habitats for creation of many fishery ponds within the wetland and cultivation practices on wetland edges. The socio-economic condition, unemployment, easy accessibility and lack of alternativesources are plausibly themajor factors, whichare leading to the decline and depletion of the wetland resources. Therefore, appropriate management strategies are required for the conservation and the sustainable utilization of these plant resources.

ABSTRACT

Fruits and vegetables are rich source of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, antioxidants and flavonoids. Drying is one of the common methods for preservation of food and agricultural commodities. However, drying may negatively affect the product quality attributes. This article is a capsule overview of current state of art ultrasound (US) assisted drying on technical aspects and bioactivity of fruits and vegetables. US assisted drying is an economical and sustainable technique compared to other existing conventional techniques used for food processing and preservation. US as a pretreatment before drying of agricultural-products enhances drying efficiency, inactivate enzymes and improve overall quality of dried products. Current developments and available solutions in drying have shown that US assisted drying may be used to restrict the loss of crucial bioactive components occurring naturally in fruits and vegetables. US when combined with hot air drying helps in achieving adequate drying rate at lower temperatures and improves overall dehydration process. This technique has found no practical application commercially due to various difficulties in achieving high-intensity US in air. One practical benefit of using US assisted drying is the minimization of the drying time along with reduction in total energy consumption.

The world population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050. This population growth of 2 to 3 billion people over the next 30 years, combined with the changing diets, would result in a predicted increase in food demand of around 70% by 2050 (UNDESA 2009).

Introduction

More and more people are turning to indoor gardening as a fun and functional way to experience nature without leaving the house. A wide variety of plants may be cared for in the comfort of one’s own home by using this method. Indoor gardening may be adjusted to fit any space, whether it a little flat or a large mansion. Improving air quality, adding a supply of fresh herbs, veggies, or colourful flowers, and increasing interior aesthetics are just a few of the many advantages. Regardless of the season or environment, indoor gardeners are able to produce a broad range of plant species thanks to the comfort of regulated temperature and lighting. In addition, tending to houseplants may be a calming hobby that pays dividends in the form of a feeling of achievement and peace of mind.

1. INTRODUCTION

In general, seed dormancy refers to lack of growth due to any external or internal cause. It also refers to a state in which viable seeds fail to germinate even when given favourable environmental condition i.e. adequate moisture, appropriate temperature regime, a normal atmosphere and in some cases light.

There are various degrees of dormancy varying from very slight to very strong (deep). Sometimes the development or degree of dormancy changes during the lifetime of the seed, usually as a response to external conditions. Hence, dormancy may be innate, develop, be broken and redevelop in seed.

Several types of dormancy exist, and sometimes more than one type of dormancy occurs in the same seed. In nature, dormancy is broken gradually or by a particular environmental event. The type of event that may break dormancy depends on dormancy type. Dormancy caused by a hard seed coat may be overcome by a gradual or an instant abrasion, and darkness induced dormancy by exposure to light. In seed handling, the natural dormancy breaking mechanism is applied or simulated during the process of pretreatment. “Pretreatment” is a term used for conditions or processes applied to break dormancy prior to germination, while “treatment” is used for application of pesticides for control of pests and diseases.

12.1. Penicillium chrysogenum

Penicillium chrysogenum (Fig. 255) (previously known as Penicillium notatum), produces the antibiotic penicillin, known as WONDER DRUG.

The antibiotics produced from fungus Penicillium is listed in table.

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) is the only species in the genus Lathyrus and family Fabaceae which is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Lathyrus comes from the Greek word “Lathyros” in which the prefix “la” means “very” and suffix “thyros” means “passionate”. The “Odoratus” is derived from Latin word which means “fragrant” (Fernald, 1950). It is mainly grown for its beautiful flower colour forms. It is an annual climbing plant growing to a height of 1-2 m with the support of a terminal tendril which twines around the plants and helps to climb. The illness caused by the ingestion of sweet pea is known as odoratism or sweet pea lathyrism. Sweet pea was used to verify Mendel’s work with the garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the early 1900s (Bateson, 1902). The genetical phenomenon of linkage was first demonstrated in the sweet pea. It is used prominently as a model organism to study flower development due to its large, colourful and fragrant flowers. The essential oils extracted from the sweet pea can be used in perfume blends.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.) was discovered in Sicily in 1695 (Rice, 2002). Its species are found both in the Old World and the New World. The main centres of diversity are the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor and North America as well as temperate South America and East Africa (Kupicha, 1977, Jackson and Yunus, 1984, Yamamoto et al., 1984 and Simola, 1986). It generally grows in temperate regions and has been found on all continents except Antarctica (Kenicer et al., 2009 and Kenicer et al., 2005). Its cultivation is popular not only in the United Kingdom and the United States but also in Europe, Russia, Egypt, New Zealand, Australia and Japan (Hambidge,

1996, Inoue, 1981, 2007 and Rice, 2002). There are some reports of commercial sweet pea cut flower production (Hammett, 2006, Inoue, 1981 and Parsons, 2004). A seed bank at the Chichester Collection was started in 1998 and stores around 900 cultivars and around 100 accessions of other species.

7.1 Introduction

The current atmospheric CO₂ concentration is the highest during last 650,000 to 800,000 years (Luthi et al., 2008), and also probably in the last 20 million years (Pearson and Palmer, 2000). Since last two decades, it is increasing at a rate of about 2 ppm/yr with the current concentration of 389 ppm in 2010 (WMO, 2011). The current trend of energy use based on fossil fuel consumption may raise it to 900 - 1100 ppmby the end of 21^st century (Kiehl, 2011).

5.1 Introduction

According to Croxton and Cowden, “Either for one’s own use or for the use of other, the data must be presented in some suitable form”.

Now – a – days everybody uses tables in one form or another, and accountants use them quite often. The work become tedious, especially if you had to do for 12 columns for the 12 months of the year, and more so if there were some modification to be done after having set up the entire table. The Americans have a special name for such tables- spreadsheet which makes life easy.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak two young Americans in 1976 AD developed the first desktop computer – The Apple which was not user friendly and needed programming for useful work. Dan Bricklin, Robert Frankston and Dan Fylstra proposed a program to turn the computer’s memory into a giant virtual spreadsheet where necessary corrections and modifications could be done fairly, quickly and easily and marketed the program in 1978 under the trade name VisiCalc. VisiCalc was soon succeeded by Sugercal and other computer programs which were more user friendly. The Lotus 1-2-3 designed and developed by Larry Kaplan put further step, which set the standard for many applications under the IBM, Now a days Microsoft under the leadership of Bill Gates had been working on the sidelines perfecting graphical user Interface (GUI) packages for the PC range of computers that would widen its reach. Now Microsoft office program Suite the integrated word processing, spreadsheet, presentation and data base management.

The spreadsheet package in Microsoft office is called Excel – our basic software, or program for this manual.

1. INTRODUCTION

In plants, seed dormancy is controlled by temperature, light and hormones. Unlike animals, which secrete hormones from special glands, hormones are always present in plant cells. Each plant hormone plays multiple roles, depending on the site of action, the life stage of the plant and the hormone’s concentration. A plant hormone is any chemical that is produced in one part of the plant that has a targeted function elsewhere. Certain hormones induce and keep seeds in a dormant state, while others cause seeds to break dormancy and initiate germination They are stored in regions where stimulus are and then released for transport through either phloem or mesophyll when the appropriate stimulus occurs. These are chemical messengers influencing many patterns of plant development

The first theory is that the five classic plant hormones, auxin, cytokinins (CKs), gibberellins (GAs), ethylene, and abscisic acid (ABA), plus the new plant hormones, brassinosteroids (BAs), and salicylates or salicylic acids (SAs) can be gathered into three groups. These are growth hormones, stress hormones and shock hormones. Auxin and CKs are growth hormones. Ethylene, GAs, and brassinosteroids are stress hormones. ABAs and SAs are shock hormones. All three types of hormones are similar in that they fall within the classic definition of an intercellular hormone. They are made by a cell and are meant to affect the behavior of other cells, either in nearby tissue or at the opposite end of the plant.

ABA, also known as abscisic acid plays a direct role in dormancy release and germination. Ethylene and the gibberellins group of hormones are indirectly involved.

1. Introduction Plants have played a crucial role in fulfilling human needs for centuries, and among the vast array of plant species, Job’s Tear (Coixlacryma-jobi L), also known as adlay, coix, and Chinese pearl barley, holds significant potential as a crop in the Poaceae family. There are four main varieties of Job’s Tear, including C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen, C. lacryma-jobi var. Puellarum, C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, and C. lacryma-jobi var. Stenocarpa. The Indo-Maynmar region serves as the primary producing area for Job’s Tear millet, with other significant production countries being China, Japan, the Philippines, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India (Laxmisha et al.,2022). The versatile crop has earned the status of a staple in many regions, not only ensuring food security but also improving the livelihoods of rural farmers. Beyond its nutritional significance, Job’s Tear has garnered recognition for its potential health benefits.

Introduction

An revolutionary method of agricultural management, precision agriculture (or precision farming) optimises each step of the farming process using data-driven tactics and cutting-edge technology. By adapting agricultural methods to the unique requirements of each field—or even just a tiny portion of a field—precision agriculture aims to increase efficiency, decrease resource waste, and boost crop yields. To accurately monitor and control aspects including soil conditions, crop health, and environmental variables, this technique integrates technologies like as GPS technology, remote sensing, IoT devices, and data analytics.

Abstract
India is second among all nations in total entrepreneurship activity as per the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Report 2012. The liberalization of the economy since 1991 has paved the way for a huge number of people to become   entrepreneurs. Developing countries like India are striving to be outward looking global economies rather than inward looking local economies. This will be possible only if small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs) are encouraged. The 2015 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) represents the 17th annual global survey of entrepreneurial activity across multiple phases of the business process; the characteristics, motivations and ambitions of entrepreneurs; the attitudes societies have toward this activity; and the quality of entrepreneurship ecosystems in different economies. Sixty-two economies participated in the 2015 survey.
Entrepreneurship plays an eminent function in creating an avenue for employability for rural communities, providing self-employment for those who have started-up a business of their own and enhancing the economic status of the rural sector as well.  Entrepreneurship has transformed many entrepreneurs into successful business persons and generated income for rural communities.

Sensor is a device which converts environmental parameters into electrical signals. In the broad definition, it is a device, module, machine, or subsystem which is designed to detect events or changes in the environment and send the information to other electronics components. An actuator is a component of a machine which is responsible for moving and controlling a system. A microcontroller is a small computer on a single metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip. This chapter explains the microcontroller development boards and their components along with the classifications of sensors and actuators.

4.1 Classification of Sensors

The sensors can be classified on the basis of different areas as follows-

i. Classification based on Application

Sensors are chosen on the basis of application where they need to be implemented like Industrial process control, measurement and automation, Automobiles, Consumer electronics, Aircraft, Medical products etc. As with change in application the selection criteria changes, so application needs to be considered.

Introduction

Embarking on the journey of legume cultivation in India reveals a nuanced landscape marked by both challenges and promising horizons. The agricultural scenario is akin to orchestrating a symphony, where legumes play a vital role, contributing melodies of resilience and significance. Unveiling this leguminous symphony in India is an exploration into the intricate interplay of obstacles and potential triumphs within the agricultural sector. As we delve into an overview of legumes, commonly known as pulse crops, their significance in Indian agriculture becomes apparent. Belonging to the Fabaceae family, these plants possess a distinctive feature - the ability to harness nitrogen from the atmosphere. This unique characteristic renders them pivotal components in sustainable agricultural systems, impacting not only food and nutritional security but also influencing the broader scope of soil fertility enhancement and economic prosperity. The journey through legume cultivation in India unfolds as a harmonious narrative, weaving together the challenges faced and the promising prospects that lie ahead in this agricultural symphony (Sow and Ranjan, 2021).

9.1 Introduction

Background increase in anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse gases, associated climate change and its global consequences are issues of concern. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (FAR) reveals that warming of the climate system is evident from the increase in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of ice and the rising global average sea level. The report states that the global mean temperature may increase between 1.4 and 5.8^oC by 2100, which will have severe impact on the global hydrological system, other ecosystems, the sea level, and agriculture. The impact could be particularly severe in tropical countries including India. Thus climate change is unavoidable and associated weather extremes such as high temperature and heat waves; increase frequency of droughts and high intensity rainfall causing flood are the issues of concern for Indian Agriculture.

14.1 Culture from Urine

Infection of urinary tract due to microorganisms affect patient of all age group and both sex., and they vary in severity from an unsuspected infection to a condition of severe systemic disease. Urine is a ordinarily excellent culture medium for the multiplication of common pathogen of urinary tract. Most bacteria found in the urine are due to contamination of skin flora during passage and they tend to increase greatly, exceeding 10⁶/ml. When the bacterial count exceeds 10⁵ per ml of urine it indicates significant bacteriuria and is indicative of a urinary tract infection. Infection of the urinary tract may be limited to a single tissue/ organ or they may spread upward and involve the entire urinary system. Escherichia coli is the most common urinary tract pathogen. Pseudomonas aeroginosa causes another important urinary tract infection, which is characterized by blue green pus. Cystitis (inflammation of urinary bladder), Pyelonephritis (inflammation of the kidney) are permanent diseases of urinary tract.

Urinary tract infections are generally characterized by bacteriuria, bacteria in the urine. Quantitative microbiological assay of urine can identify the probable pathogen. For this purpose, calibrated loop- direct streak method and pour plate method are routinely used. Now-a-days commercially prepared special plastic device called the urine dip slide and diagnostic urine–culture called Bacturcult is being used for isolation and identification of microorganisms from genitourinary tract infections. The Bacturcult is a sterile disposable plastic tube coated with a special medium on its inner side for detection and identification of bacteriuria.