eChapters

3.1 Introduction

Different types of farm ponds with their characteristics features are discussed in this Chapter. It is observed that farm ponds can be constructed at different sites starting from the plain areas with relatively flat slopes to valley terrain having steep slopes. The choice of a particular type of pond largely depends on the kind of water supply available and on the existing topography of the site selected. In general for valleys with bottom width less than 100 m, barrage ponds may work well whereas valleys with bottom width more than 100 m, diversion ponds find suitable.

3.2 Collection of Basic Information

Basic information on different data relating to the soil, climate, plant, topography, groundwater table, catchment characteristics, and livestock populations are to be collected for the area where pond has to be constructed. Estimation of water supply from different sources and water demand form the pond for various purposes are to be done and a pond water balance study needs to be done before designing a pond in a particular place.

2.1 Introduction

Farm ponds are the most commonly used source of ex-situ water harvesting structures. It has wide adaptability in farmers’ fields and used as handy source for water supply to crop fields. It has been used since time immemorial not only as an assured source of water supply to crops but also to meet demands in other sectors. However, these ponds have wide variations in shape and size as per the method of construction and their suitability for different topographic conditions. Most of the ponds, initially constructed in fields have regular shape. However, as time progresses and because of the poor or no repair and maintenance, these ponds loose their regular shape and become irregular.

1.1 Introduction

Water is the basis of all forms of life. It supports life system not only to the plants but also to all other animals. The embryo from the conception till birth floats in the liquid medium. Cell, the basic unit of life, contains as high as 95- 98% water. Cellular metabolism is controlled by content of water. Majority of this water requirement of the crops is met from different forms of precipitation. However, when the water requirement is not fully met from precipitation, then growth of the crops is affected. This results in reduction of yield of the crops. The reduction in yield depends on the amount of scarcity of water requirement of the crops. Water requirement of crops depend on many factors. It depends on the type of crops, irrigation schedules practiced, soil texture, position of groundwater table below the effective root zone of the crop and management practice followed in crop cultivation. The pulses, oilseeds, vegetables which are also otherwise termed as dry land crops need less water compared to rice which is a water loving crops and perennial crops like sugarcane and banana.

Water requirement of crops is partly met by the upward flux of groundwater. The capillary rise of shallow water table in the form of upward flux helps in meeting the water requirement of crops to some extent. The upward flux depends on the type of the soil, effective root zone depth of the crop, depth of water table below effective root zone depth of the crop and potential gradient of soil moisture suction. The residual soil moisture helps in supporting water requirement of crops also. The heavy soil like clay has more moisture retention capacity than the light soils like sandy soil. The residual soil moisture held in clay soil is released slowly and supports soil moisture to the crops for a longer period than the sandy soil which has less soil moisture retention capacity. After meeting the water requirement of crops from all sources including different forms of precipitation, ground water contribution by capillary rise and residual soil moisture, if there is any shortage of water, then this shortage should be met from other sources which is called as irrigation.

Abstract

The landslides that swallowed the whole of Malin village, Maharashtra on the early morning hours of 30 July, 2014 is one of the major disasters, next only to Kedarnath episode in the recent years. Consequently, the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, constituted an expert committee comprising the authors of the article which made a visit and took the on the spot assessment of the disaster. Their observations show that the area is covered by the Deccan basalts, which are layered with compact and vesicular basalts; fractured and jointed basalts due to tectonics and the cooling of the basalts; and have also undergone extensive geomorphic evolution. Due to such geologic/geomorphic setting, the flow layered basaltic hillock in which Malin is located is naturally benched, which is further being leveled for the agriculture purposes. The deforestation, leveling of the hills, excessive usage of water for irrigation and the lack of drainages outlet in such benched and leveled slopes have assigned high degree of landslide vulnerability to the area. Over this, when torrential rainfall occurred in the last week of July, the landslide was triggered. On the basis such inferences, some mitigation measures have been evolved after the visit.

Abstract

The landslide vulnerability of the state of Mizoram is already high due to lithology, structure, geomorphology and seismotectonics and also the rainfall, like the other states of the northeastern region of India. The extensive mining activities along the highways for the building and road materials appear to cause additional problems of landslides. So two prominent landslides occurring in Keifang and Tlungvel quarries,Mizoram were studied. Besides taking stock of the geosystems, boreholes were drilled in both slides and from the total depth drilled and the modified core recovery, the RQD were worked out for the rocks which indicates that geotechnically the rocks of Keifang quarry are weak when compared to Tlungvel quarry. The geophysical surveys too lead to similar inferences. On the basis of the studies a set of mitigation strategies have been suggested.

Abstract

The Rawana landslide, located in Sirmuar district of the Shimla Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh is repeatedly active in the recent years. It is a NE-SW oriented slide with the crown in the southwest and the wider toe in the northeast resting in Giri River. During some of the sliding events emanations of heat and gases were also inferred. In order to understand the landslide phenomenon and the causative factors, and there from to evolve mitigation measures, detailed studies of the slides were under taken. The Landslide hazard zonation mapping carried out in Rawana landslide using LHEF rating based BIS method indicates that it is located in high hazard zone. The detailed studies show the complex geological, structural, morphotectonic and hydrological setting. From the studies it is surmised that the toe erosion by Giri river and the rainfall infiltration in the mid slope region are responsible for the slide. Remedial measures have been accordingly evolved.

Abstract

The Nilgiri Mountains of South India is one of the Landslide prone hill ranges in India. The landslides, in general, are due to the independent, interdependent and the combined effects of natural earth system processes, triggering phenomenon and anthropogenic activities. So the scientists, technocrats and the academicians from all over the world have started studying the landslides using various techniques and advanced tools in mapping the morphology, preparing the vulnerability maps and carve out mitigation strategies. But the discrimination of active slides is a difficult task and also needs continuous monitoring and further a time consuming process too. So, in this context, an attempt has been made to study the signatures of active sliding in one of old slides namely the “LINGASLIDE” in which frequent minor sliding events are often reported. In the study, Total station based large scale topographic survey was carried out in LINGASLIDE and from the same 50 cm topographic contours were generated. From such large scale contours, Digital elevation Model (DEM) was generated and from the DEM, shaded relief map was generated.Uutilizing both the contours and shaded relief maps, small slides were mapped in the LINGASLIDE from the well exhibited subsidiary crowns, toes and the traverse cracks. Resistivity tomography surveys were also carried out along two longitudinal profiles and one traverse profile to identify the subsurface geology, the slip surface and the zones of moisture accumulations, if any. The subsidiary crowns, toes, the conjugate fracture systems and the resistivity tomography showed that the LINGASLIDE is active and the sliding is going on towards easterly because of the easterly compression,resulted from the higher slopes caused by the settlements raised over Lingaslide and the obstruction provided by the retaining walls at the toes in the east. Such compressive forces are clear from the NW-SE and NE-SW fractures seen in Lingaslide and the sliding is clear from the cracks seen and monitored in the buildings constructed over Lingaslide.

Abstract

Kaliasaur landslide located 18km from Srinagar on the NH-58 in Uttrakhand Himalayas has been repeatedly sliding for the last over 5 – 6 decades totally paralyzing the transport operations in the region and causing beeline of issues not only for the people living in the hilly state but also the tourists and the pilgrims. The study of Geosystems & geodynamics, large scale micro zonation and geotechnical studies using RMR and SMR techniques show that the slide is located in high hazard zone and follow the pattern of wedge and planar failures with vulnerable zone of factor of safety. The toe erosion by the acutely turning Alaknanda river and the mitigation measures in the form of slope disturbance in the upslope part rather protecting slide, has been responsible for the recurring slides. The study further revealed that excessive rainfall is also a triggering parameter and the crown part is widening. On the basis of the studies, mitigation measures have also been brought out.

Keywords: Kaliasaur landslides, Micro LSV zonation, Factors of landslides, Mitigation.

Abstract

Since the landslides have started spreading over to the most of the mountain provinces of all over the world, having developed expertise in Landslide vulnerability mapping, Factor of safety, Rock mechanic studies etc. the scientists and the technocrats have started focusing towards developing landslide early warning systems using instruments. As the instrumentation in such vast areas is not feasible satellite based monitoring of landslide movements is fast emerging. In this connection the paper discusses InSAR interferometry based landslide movements carried out in Nainital and Mansadevi areas, Uttrakhand Himalayas, India.

Keywords: SAR interferometry, Monitoring movements, Nainital & Mansadevi Landslides.

INTRODUCTION

Landslides pose greater threats to the population of India also, especially those living in mountainous regions, the top being the Himalayas. Many villages and vital transport routes are endangered by landslides and losses of lives and important infrastructure now become a routine phenomenon. Therefore, studies on surface displacements and landslide movements have become very important. However, due to the large aerial extent of the landslide prone provinces, this task may not be effectively carried out by ground based methods. In the recent years, the availability of interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from a variety of satellite and airborne remote sensing sensors has emerged, as a potential tool that can yield accurate data on surface displacements. Although, monitoring of such low velocity deformations, as we observe in landslides, is only possible if considerably long time series images are available. InSAR derived displacement measurements are not only feasible but also moderate in their costs compared to many ground-based methods. This paper discusses Small Baseline Subset (SBAS) algorithm used to monitor landslide movements.

Abstract

The landslide is a disaster which causes rampant loss to life, property and ecosystems. With increased awareness and technological development, the number of monitoring stations near hazardous regions have increased. To give warning prior to the occurrence of a landslide, the soil/rock mechanics of the underlying bed needs to be studied and understood. This paper examines the current literature and elucidates some features of state-of- the-art landslide monitoring systems.

Keywords: Field based sensors, Wireless sensor network, Landslide monitoring

INTRODUCTION

Advancements in technology have helped us to understand nature better than before, yet the geotechnical parameters causing landslides could not be quantified accurately. The efforts taken in predicting landslides are clearly moving towards this objective and this can be seen by the number of monitoring stations that have been setup in landslide prone areas around the world. The data that is obtained at each location is important in understanding landslides. Each location is unique in terms of soil properties, groundwater, inclination of the slope and weather conditions and consequently, each deployment is unique.

The paper narrates the instrumentation based forewarning systems functioning around the world. The paper discusses these aspects hierarchically viz; Landslide prone areas in India, geotechnical instrumentations and their merits, influence of rainfall on landslides, correlation between rainfall and pore pressure, the relevance of different systems for different scenarios etc.

Abstract

The Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh is prone to landslides due to inherent geodynamic conditions, rainfall and anthropogeny. Besides multi-variate studies on the landslides of Himachal Pradesh, instrument based early warning system was attempted by taking Jhakri landslides as the test site. Various instruments viz; piezometer, vertical inclinometer, Rain gauge, etc. were installed and the paper discusses about the methodology adopted in the installation of the instruments and the observations made from the instruments. While Piezometer did not reveal much information, the Tiltmeter showed minor movements.

Abstract

The present study deals with the slope instability analysis of a vulnerable stretch of 16 km between Pratapgarh road intersection and Mahabaleshwar town, which is a part of the state highway-72, Satara district, Maharashtra, India. The highway remains closed during the monsoon seasons, due to the recurrent instances of cut slope failures. So the present research work was conducted with an aim to study the reasons, extent and mechanism of the cut slope failures along the road sections as well as optimization of tools for the assessment of road cut stability of the area. The 16 km stretch was divided into seven vulnerable sections (M1; near Mahabaleshwar - M7; near Poladpur) based on the geological, geometrical and structural attributes. The slope forming mass primarily consists of laterite, weathered basalt and fresh jointed basalt, which are interbedded with red bole at some sections. Limit equilibrium, finite difference and finite element simulation were performed for seven cut slope sections, using similar geometries and material strength attributes for all the analyzing techniques. The assessment was carried out for both dry and saturated conditions to emulate the monsoons. The factor of safety yielded through the limit equilibrium method was the most conservative of all the tools; while the finite element method gave the least conservative figures in terms of factors of safety, being close to the field observations, the safety factor results of finite difference methods were between the limit equilibrium and finite element methods. The cut slope sections composed of weathered basalts and laterites (M1, M2, M3, M6) were found most vulnerable to failure during rains, while the sections composed of fresh jointed basalts (M4 & M5), though overall stable, are susceptible to planar and wedge failures.

Abstract

Geological conditions in the Tertiary mountainous areas of the western and eastern hill ranges of Manipur often cause landslide movements. These repeatedly occur mostly in old landslide regions during rainy seasons on a large scale, causing considerable economic loss and injuries and deaths of humans. In order to improve such landslide hazard assessment of the region for effective mitigation, Electrical resistivity surveys were conducted using Schlumberger array technique on the very unstable and problematic frontal part of the Kotland landslide, NH-37, Manipur along three profiles. Electrical resistivities aided the characterization and quantification of the subsurface rock units, structure and tectonic conditions of the Landslided area which can contribute for the better planning of mitigation strategies. The results lead to the elucidation of depth of the different litho-units and the geometry of failure surface. The probable failure surface was observed between 10 and 22m depth, characterised by low resistivity (< 150 Ωm) and geometry of the sliding surface was rotational. In addition, a fault was also inferred in the resistivity pseudosection model and hence the area may be highly vulnerable to landslides.

Abstract

Due to fragile lithology belonging to Disang and Barail groups of the Cretaceous-Tertiary period, intensive structural deformation related to collision tectonics, extensive weathering and the anthropogenic activities in the form of slope cutting for the development and widening of roads lead to frequent landslides in the state of Manipur, India. In this connection, the road section between Tengnoupal and Sita has been studied to understand the landslides vulnerability and to evolve mitigation strategies. The study involved the Petrochemical analysis to elucidate the weathering potential of the rocks, kinematic analysis to understand the network of joints and the strain, slope stability analysis to prepare Land Hazard Zonation mapping and estimation of factors of safety in selected locations. On the basis of these studies, long & short term remedial measures were suggested to mitigate the landslide hazards.

Abstract

The state of Nagaland located in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent is also prone to landslides similar to the other north eastern states due to the softer lithologies, intense deformation and extensive anthropogenic activities. So in order to understand the landslide vulnerability and to evolve remedial measures, a 12 km stretch of the NH-2 from Kohima town in the south to Zhadima junction in the north was studied. The study comprises the preparation of landslide hazard zonation map using BIS method and detailed studies in six major landslides involving RMR, SMR and Kinematic analysis and also the suitable remedial measures for such landslide phenomenon.

Abstract

The softer rock types belonging to Tertiary period, intense deformation and the related more frequent tectonic weak planes, high degree of weathering and extensive road cutting are the inherent systems in provoking Landslides in Noney-Nungba segment of NH-53 in the state of Manipur. So Landslide Hazard Zonation mapping was carried out in this segment using BIS method and also geotechnical investigations were carried out in Awang Khull part-II slide and Raungdai slide and on the basis of type of failure and the morphotectonic conditions mitigation strategies were suggested.

Abstract

Similar to other north eastern states of India, the state of Manipur is also prone to recurring landslides. The National Highway 150 and the state Highway in Ukhrul, Nunghar and Paorei sectors often witness landslides due to geological complexities, rainfall and anthropogenic activities. So a study was conducted to prepare the landslide hazard zonation map for the region using the method developed by Bureau of Indian Standards, which indicates that 67.32 km² (nearly 56%) fall under high hazard zone. The RMR and SMR studies carried out in five test sites in such high hazard zone show that four sites fall under highly unstable category (class IV) and one under partially unstable category (class III). The kinematic analysis indicates dominant wedge failure. The improper landuse, lack of adequate drainage and toe removal for road widening are the major causative factors for the recurring landslides.

Abstract

Landslides are the most common hazards in hilly regions. Rapid development and the resultant uncontrolled interactions with ecosystems are the major reasons for the landslides, besides the rainfall. So, the assessment of landslides hazard vulnerability is a prerequisite before making any developments related to settlements, hill resorts, hydropower projects and the related network of Ghat roads. The present study deals with the assessment of landslides in two different sites; Site-1 located in the Ghat section of Yercaud hills between 10/4 and 29/6 km stones in the southwestern slopes of Shevroy hills, Salem, and the Site-2 located in the Ghat road between Lower camp and Kumuli in Theni districts, Tamil Nadu. The Theni ghat road in the National Highway-220 is connecting Tamil Nadu with Kerala and is the lifeline for Sabarimala, Tekkadi and Munnar. Besides, a series of pan stacks conveying water from Periyar reservoir in Kerala to the power house located at Lower camp in Tamil Nadu also lie in this stretch of hills. Landslide vulnerability mapping was carried out in an area of 130sq.km in Site-1 and 6.7 sq.km in Site-2 by assigning numerical values to the causative factors of slope instability such as lithology, structure, slope morphometery, relative relief, land use and land cover, and ground water conditions following the BIS code No. 14496 (1998) for preparing landslide hazard zonation maps. The study in Yercaud hills revealed that out of 12 slope facets, facet 1 to 6, 9 and 12 fall under moderate landslide hazard zone whereas facets 7, 8, 10, and 11 fall under high hazard zone. The area falling in facets 3, 4 and 5 of Kumuli ghat section fall under high landslide hazard zone, the slope facets 1, 2, 9 and 10 fall in the moderate hazardous zone and other facets in low hazardous zone.

Abstract

Prediction of the occurrences of Landslides requires a set of complex analyses, involving multitude of factors which are to be studied systematically in order to evaluate the landslide vulnerability. The increasing availability of computer-based tools and data storage capabilities are found to be useful in landslide vulnerability mapping. One such significant tool in landslide studies is Geographic Information System (GIS). In this article some approaches were made to model the land slide hazard for Sirumalai Hills, Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu, India using Geographical Information Systems and the same is presented in this paper.

Abstract

The landslides have become the fast spreading disaster all over the Indian sub-continent. As such landslides were mostly occurring in the Mighty Himalayan Mountains, it was all along attributed to active tectonics. But when it started occurring in most of the mountain belts of India, various geological parameters, the anthropogenic phenomenon and rain fall were inferred to be the main causes for the landslides. Hence when this concept emerged, and again the Remote Sensing and the GIS technologies have phenomenally evolved, different types of variables, again on different resolutions and different methodologies have been adopted to prepare landslide vulnerability maps and this has started yielding varying types of outputs. As the landslide vulnerability zonation mapping (LVZ) is the first step in landslide studies it is essential to evolve a suitable methodology for the same. So the present study was carried out in a test site of around 300 sq.km in between Coonoor and Otacamund, Nilgiri mountains, Western Ghats, South India. In the said study, a set of 12 Earth System Parameters/Variables which could contribute to landslide vulnerability were prepared as GIS raster databases from the data interpreted from satellite MSS data and field geological and geophysical data sets. Similar GIS database was generated on 144 landslides. These landslides were superposed over such 12 Earth system parameters data and landslide vulnerability weightages were assigned to each subvariables of these Earth system parameters. In assigning weightages using such landslide incidence data various methods viz; slope, integrated terrain, information value, weight of evidence, index overlay and BIS methods were used and landslide vulnerability zonation maps were prepared adding all the 12 weightages assigned Earth system variables. In this, all the 12 earth system parameters were having same resolutions. Then the outputs were compared which revealed that the information value method is the best suited method for LVZ mapping followed by weight of evidence method.

Abstract

The Sonapur landslide located in the south eastern fringe of Shillong Plateau falls in NH44 connecting Shillong with Agartala. The slide is repeatedly active and massive debris flows occur during every monsoonic season since 1999. The studies carried out under the NRDMS funded project shows that the slide falls in the tectonically active E-W Dauki fault system, which not only forms the southern boundary of the Shillong plateau but also the near vertical plane along which the Shillong plateau has been uplifted due to the northerly compressive force and the collision of Indian plate with Eurasian plate. Such post collision tectonic uplift and the southerly tilt of the Shillong plateau in its southern part, monoclinal southerly dipping sediments south of Dauki fault, Sylhet trough, occurrence of NE-SW sinistral (shears) and NW-SE dextral faults in Sonapur area, high seismic activity and rainfall are responsible for the Sonapur Landslide.

Abstract

Northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent is seismically an active region, and is further prone to excessive rainfall and frequent landslides, which cause disruption of the road networks during the monsoonic months every year. The region owns a typical morphotectonic setup where many active thrusts and faults have carved out the landforms and physiography of the major part of the region. The creeping phenomenon of the N-S trending prominent strike-slip fault, namely the Churachandpur - Mao Fault (CMF), is one of the triggering factors for the frequent landslides and low magnitude earthquakes. The life line of Manipur, the national high way NH39, traverses along and in close proximity to this fault in Manipur, and hence the life is paralysed in the area during the monsoonic months. From the GPS campaign mode studies on the western and eastern sides of the CMF, it is observed that there is a change in the crustal velocities from 16 - 22 mm/yr in the east to 33 - 42 mm/yr in the west. Micro-deformations are also observed in the form of displacements respectively with the vertical, N-S and E-W components of–0.111 mm/yr (downward), 0.03 mm/yr (northward) and –0.011 mm/yr (westward). The net displacement is 0.126 mm/yr with an azimuth of N 85° and dipping of 13° towards west. Neotectonic movements along the CMF, as per the GPS measurements, suggest an aseismic nature of the fault with dextral component. Fault plane solutions of the earthquakes show northerly directed principal P-axis indicating the extension (T-axis) along east-west. The resultant creeping of micro-deformation towards the western slopes of the terrain is aligned with the principal T-axis. The creeping triggers the micro seismicity as well as the landslides along the CMF.

Abstract

Landslides have become a recurring phenomenon in most of the mountainous regions of the world. In Indian peninsular, the landslides which were mostly confined to the tectonically active Himalayan Mountains once, have started spreading over to the other mountain belts of the Peninsula. The Tirumala – Tirupati hills, which is drawing millions of pilgrims from all over the world is facing landslides especially along the newly built southern uphill ghat road. The geology of the area, studied using Geomatics tools like Remote Sensing, SRTM based Digital Elevation Models, GPS Survey, etc., showed that Tirumala hills is under the grip of upward tectonic movements as evidenced from the N-S and E-W oriented Pleistocene faults, intensely dissected Plateau top Cuddapah Quartzites, retreating escarpments, exhaustive debris slope, extensive valley fills along the slopes, colluvial fills in lower slopes, palaeo debris flows along the southern and western obsequent slopes of the Tirumala hills etc. All these indicate the inherent landslide vulnerability of the slopes. The E-W trending dykes which are piercing the slopes and protruding as ridges add further landslide vulnerability to such fragile slopes. So, the new ghat road laid along such southern slope is obviously facing landslides. However, the detailed Geomatics based studies show that the dykes, valley fills and steep slopes are particularly more vulnerable to landslides. Though remedial measures have been broadly evolved, abandoning the southern uphill new ghat road and widening the older northern downhill ghat road seems to be the better and long term feasible alternative to prevent Landslides in the area.

Abstract

The article briefly narrates the initiatives taken by the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi in providing solutions to rapidly growing Landslide Disasters in India. Duly considering the importance of the issue, the DST has embarked on a National Landslide Programme more than two decades ago and brought voluminous information on Landslide Vulnerability Mapping, Site Specific Landslide Investigations, Landslide Kinematics, Instrument Based Forewarning etc. by funding large number of research projects to various Academic/Research institutions in the country. In addition, the bilateral collaborative programme launched on Geohazards between India & Norway, resulted in bilateral flow of knowledge and capacity building amongst various tiers of the Academic, Research and the Planning Hierarchy, yielding tangible benefits.

Keywords: Landslides in India, DST’s Initiatives.

INTRODUCTION

Landslides cause extensive damages to roads, bridges, human dwellings, agricultural lands, forests and other establishments year after year resulting in immense losses of life and properties. The entire Himalayan region has been the target of intense development activities for the last few decades. Hence the instabilities along the natural slopes are accentuated by the human activities since the development schemes are often not properly planned and implemented (Valdiya 1980; Thakur 2001). This has become the case in most of the mountains in India. Keeping in view of the stability of the slopes, the need of the hour is to achieve sustainable development of the hilly regions while implementing various developmental schemes. So there has to be a major S&T role to play to minimize the landslide problems. This should include all possible corrective and preventive measures to minimize the losses due to this disaster.

Sales management as the term implies means management of sales. Initially the concept consisted of managing the sales workforce. Now-a-days, it includes managing of all the sales related activities like advertising, sales promotion, physical distribution, pricing and product merchandising.

Standardization

Standardization means establishment of standards for matters such as quality, size, weight and color. Once standards are set grading is possible using the criteria established in the standards. Thus, standardization involves establishment and maintenance of uniform measurements of produce quality and/or quantity.

Grading

Grading follows standardization. It is a sub-function of standardization. It is a method of dividing products into certain groups or lots in accordance with predetermined standard. Grading before sale enables farmers to get a higher price for their produce .Consumer get standard quality products at fair prices. It is easier for them to compare the prices of different qualities of a product in the market. It minimizes their purchasing risk, for they will not get a lower quality product at the given prices .e.g. eggs are graded into different categories based on set standards. Similarly cattle feed is also sometimes categorized into different grades based on established standards.

Marketing channel can be defined as the path that a livestock commodity follows from the farmer?s gate to the consumer?s plate. A marketing channel involves a set of separate but interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product available to consumers.

Importance of Marketing Channels

1. Little attention by companies or enterprises to marketing channels may damage profit, brand and number of customers.

2. Companies can change their products, advertising and pricing easily but it is not easy to change marketing channels.

3. Marketing channels are particularly convenient when the producer does not have time or financial means to carry out direct marketing.

4. Intermediaries in marketing channels are usually able to make the product widely available and accessible because they are specialized, have experience and contacts. They also have a better understanding of the market. Intermediaries take the risks involved in marketing and also pay for the produce immediately.

Project Appraisal : Assessing Project Benefits

Project appraisal helps to determine which among various projects one is to accept and which to reject. This is however possible only when costs and benefits have been identified, priced, and valued. A number of techniques of project appraisal can be discussed under two heads :

Livestock rearing provides triple benefits of income, employment and nutritional security to the society and is important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. Finance is a prerequisite and of paramount importance for setting up of a livestock enterprise whether a dairy farming unit for milk production, sheep or goat unit, piggery unit, dairy/poultry processing unit etc. Provision of credit/loans for the purchase of livestock, feed, veterinary services and insurance against the loss of valuable productive assets play an important role in encouraging new investments in the sector and also in coping with difficult problems such as draught and diseases. Decisions about credit are often most important judgments that people in the livestock enterprise must make. These decisions often determine whether individuals operating in input, production, processing and services based livestock enterprise would succeed in making profit.

Livestock rearing is central to livelihoods and survival of millions of people of India. It is estimated that approximately 100 million people derive their livelihood from livestock rearing as primary or secondary source of income. Livestock related activities help to maintain regular in flow of income for these households. Small farmers in India generate nearly half of their income from livestock and the value of cattle represents a significant part of their wealth, so the death of cattle poses a significant risk and affects farmers? net worth and income.

Type of Risks to Livestock based Livelihoods

Large animals are expensive and thus carry higher risk exposure. These risks are in form of losses due to the disease, accident, theft, natural calamity which can cause significant losses to these households. Sometimes owners are forced to sell their animals due to incurable disease/ disorder/ fodder and water scarcity and later they are unable to rebuild their stock. Many times animal losses force them into poverty trap from where they are unable to recover.

Expectations from Veterinarian as Extension Officer to Promote Entrepreneurship

The veterinarian has to act as facilitators to exchange experiences, share knowledge and information and participate in joint problem-solving. This requires linking farmers with the right support institutions and individuals who have expertise to deal with their specific concerns. Therefore, extension workers need to understand the training needs of the farmers and to identify the best trainers or training institutions to meet those needs. Part of this involves creating awareness about the training programme and explaining the objectives and content to potential trainees.

Extension workers should also assess the impact of the training on the behaviour of the participants and on the farm business Impact assessment is essential because it is the true indicator of the relevance and effectiveness of the training programme.

Extension workers can also provide more general support in the form of study visits, study tours. Farmers observe ?good entrepreneurial practices?, and learn from the practices of others. Farmers are taken on a tour. See markets first-hand, visit input suppliers and buyers, and make contacts. Farmers also visit farmers in other areas to exchange experiences and see new techniques. Such visits can transform a farmer?s view on production and marketing. Visits should be followed up with periodic evaluations to assess the impact of the visit and the use of new practices and techniques. They can also arrange seminars with possible topics like entrepreneurship, farm business management, market possibilities, successful case studies, new technologies, price assessments and market-oriented production techniques. Extension workers can also facilitate farmers working with producer organizations. Producer organizations can make useful contributions to developing entrepreneurship among farmers.

Setting up livestock enterprise be it a small dairy unit, goat unit, milk and meat processing plant, selling parlor requires capital. Lack of access to credit to expand the herd is a critical problem for farmers. There is little access to formal credit through the cooperatives or banks. Informal credit is available from private traders and agents of private companies, but the interest rate is very high. Keeping this situation in mind and to provide financial support from banks few major dairy entrepreneurship schemes have been developed and implemented by banks with the support of state animal husbandry departments across different parts of the country. National Bank on Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the lead bank for financial support of such schemes.

Demand of livestock products is on the rise in India. India?s demand forecast for milk, mutton, egg production is more than the current supply of these products. To meet this demand entrepreneurship initiatives are need of the hour .Further, younger generation of India seems more interested in commercial dairy farming rather than subsistence based farming. Therefore, entrepreneurial training to farmers is essential. An average entrepreneur faces several barriers to start a new enterprise. Some of them are as under

Once entrepreneurship is decided upon, there are three main routes an entrepreneur may follow. He can start a new livestock business, he can also purchase an existing livestock business or he can take over a family livestock business. In the first case the entrepreneur begins from scratch on all his own ideas, as there are no existing problems or concerns from a previous owner. He has the freedom to start the business in his own way. However, the risk is higher and he has to devote time, effort, and money—especially for startup expenses such as equipment, building, etc. When the entrepreneur purchases an existing business he has advantages of smaller startup costs and building on the existing goodwill or loyalty of established customers. This option is good if the entrepreneur does not have a great deal of business experience. Disadvantages might include inheriting existing problems such as poor location, stiff competition, fluctuating market, equipment problems, and poor reputation. In the third instance an entrepreneur takes over family business. In this situation, an entrepreneur has the support and training available from the family members, creating trust and togetherness that bonds the business as one entity. Maintaining separate family and business relationships is the biggest obstacle to overcome, making it difficult to get away from the business. Personality conflicts, different interests, changed values, and burnout are a few reasons that familyowned businesses don?t survive to the second generation. A person who grows up in the family business may be ready to spread his or her wings and explore new career aspirations.

Techno economic feasibility of livestock enterprises under different conditions

The technical and economic feasibility part examines the possible technical and economic aspects of a proposed livestock project. In this chapter we would be studying techno economic feasibilities of various livestock based enterprise

1. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Dairy unit

2. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Goat Farm

3. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Pig Farm

4. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Feed unit

Livestock entrepreneur is a person who undertakes livestock based activities such as livestock rearing, production of livestock/ livestock products, processing and other inputs of livestock business. He finds ways and means to create and develop a profitable livestock business. Livestock entrepreneurs see their farming as a business and as a means of earning profits. So they are willing to take calculated risks to make profits and to grow their businesses. They are also motivated to improve livestock production through mechanization and application of technologies in the field of dairy, small ruminant, poultry and allied enterprises. Livestock entrepreneur is determined and creative person, always looking for opportunities to improve and expand his business. He likes to take calculated risks, and assumes responsibility for both profits and losses. An entrepreneur is passionate about growing his business and is constantly looking for new opportunities.Enterprising farmers are also innovators. They always look for better and more efficient and profitable ways to do things. Being innovative is an important quality for a farmer-entrepreneur, especially when the business faces strong competition or operates in a rapidly changing environment. They look for better ways to organize their farms. They try, better animals, and alternative technologies to increase productivity, diversify production, reduce risk and to increase profits.

Entrepreneur

The word “Entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb ?Entreprendre?. It means ?to begin something? or ?to undertake?. In the early 16th century the Frenchmen who organized and led military expeditions were referred as ?Entrepreneurs?. In the early 18th century French economist Richard Cantillon used the term entrepreneur to business. Since that time the word entrepreneur means one who takes the risk of starting a new organization or introducing a new idea, product or service to society. An entrepreneur is a person who starts an enterprise. He has right to own his business and to make a profit. Some economist says that entrepreneur is one who is willing to bear the risk of a new venture if there is a significant chance for profit. Others emphasize the entrepreneur?s role as an innovator who markets his innovation. Still other economists say that entrepreneurs develop new goods or processes that the market demands and are not currently being supplied. Different researchers have elaborated qualities of Entrepreneurs. Schumpeter said that entrepreneurs are innovators who use a process of creative destruction of the established ways of creating/doing existing products and services, to set up new products, new services. David McClelland proposed that an entrepreneur is a person with a high need for achievement. He is energetic and a moderate risk taker. Peter Drucker said that an entrepreneur searches for change, responds to it and exploits change as an opportunity. In the words of Albert Shapero, Entrepreneurs take initiative, accept risk of failure and have an internal locus of control. Entrepreneurship as explained by various scholars laid emphasis on a wide spectrum of activities such as self employment of any sort, creation of organizations and innovation.

Climate change in particular global warming affect the health of the animals both directly and indirectly. Direct effects include temperature associated diseases like heat stroke and death and morbidity of animals during extreme weather conditions. Indirect effects include those deriving from attempt to adapt to changing environment or influence of climate on microbial populations, distribution of vector borne diseases, host resistance to infectious agents, feed and water shortages or food borne diseases. Among infectious diseases vector borne diseases and diseases caused by agents who have a stage in the environment are more likely to be affected than other diseases. The assessment of impact of climate change on animal diseases is challenging because there are several factors affecting the disease dynamics. But once the risk of potential diseases and their transmission routes are identified, the disease forecasts can be generated and control measures can be implemented to reduce the risk of such diseases.

Sheep and goats in temperate regions are seasonal breeders with breeding activity mostly restricted to short day seasons of the year (Maule 1962). Endocrine mechanisms regulated by the variations of the day length stimulate reproductive activity to have maximum conceptions during the period of shorter days and correspondingly maximum births during longer day periods after a 5 months gestation (Hafez, 1987). Thus, essence of seasonal breeding is to ensure maximum births during the period congenial for survival of young ones, including availability of feeding materials and favorable climate. In tropical regions with minimum variation of day length and less distinct seasons, feed availability is not much affected by seasons in particular. Hence most species of animals maintains reproductive activity throughout the year (Devendra and Burns 1983). However there found to have influence of various locally relevant factors affecting comfort of living such as feed availability, weather and other environmental factors. Accordingly, there occur seasonal peaks and periods of restricted reproductive activity and pattern of the same can vary according to the local situations prevailing year to year (Goel and Agarwal, 1988 and Wani et al. 1980).

Rearing poultry industrially is a necessity in the present condition where the demand is high and the land holdings for extensive rearing is diminishing. All over the world the poultry industry is growing rapidly. The poultry industry in India is growing at around 8 per cent per annum. The poultry population of the country mainly consists of chicken, ducks, quails, ornamental birds and ratites. Chicken form is the major component of the industry. They are mainly reared as broilers for meat purpose and as layers for eggs. The climatic variations and their effects on profitable poultry rearing are an important topic of study in the current situation, where intensive rearing and global warming are being discussed with equal importance. The welfare aspects of the birds are also a matter of concern all over the world. Thus the knowledge of normal physiology of poultry, the effects of the tropical climate on them and the measures to alleviate detrimental effects produced by adverse climatic conditions have been discussed in detail here.

In the existing planetary system, life was established and growing over millions of years on earth. If we track down to the history of evolution, beginning with a living unicellular organisms Amoeba, growing to a gigantic size of Dinosaur and stabilizing at well adaptable stage of an Elephant in animal kingdom or to reach the present status of the intelligent human being, throughout these developmental stages the climatic/meteorological factors play a crucial and supportive role. Further the Development of plant/Animal kingdom is making rapid strides in tropical climatic zones where the temperature ambient ranges between 20⁰C to 40⁰C and the rain fall/humidity factors are moderate. We are fortunate enough that India is geographically located in tropical zone. This classic location advantage of the country in the world geographical map helped the country in keeping India as number one milk producer in the world, no 3 producer in poultry egg production, number 5 in horticulture production i.e fruits and vegetables. Climate change affects livestock both directly and indirectly. Direct effects from temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed and other climate factors, aggravates the heat stress in dairy animals, and influences animal performance badly: in growth factors, milk production in Dairy animals, mutton production/ wool production in case of sheep. egg and meat production in poultry, and reproductive aspects in all the species. The indirect impact of these factors on livestock may result on economic, nutritional and health aspects of human society and also its contribution to the economy of the country.

In old days, Statistics is considered as a method for collected numerical information. In general, Statistics deals with concepts, principles and methods dealing with collection, summarization, analysis and interpretation of data. Data means a collection of numerical facts. Data is plural and singular is datum. Generally there are two classifications for data, quantitative and qualitative. In the case of quantitative character the individuals are measured. While in the case of qualitative character, the individuals are distinguished by some quality. Data collected by the investigator for the purpose of the investigation are known as primary data. E.g., data obtained in a population census. Data collected by others for some other purpose and is used by the investigator are known as secondary data. E.g., Annual Reports, Official publication etc. The aggregate of all the observations pertaining to a character is called a population. Sample is a part of the population selected according to some definite rule. Usually the sample is used to make an inference about the population. In other words sample is a miniature of the population. The methods by which we analyze the data are called statistical methods. At the end of the enquiry, the investigators will naturally left with a large number of filled up schedules and a very efficient statistician couldn?t interpret anything from it unless it is classified and extracted. When we classify based on the quality like colour, sex, religion etc. which can?t measure directly, the classification is qualitative. But characteristics such as height, weight, length, time etc. can be easily measured using a scale. Such are called quantitative characteristics. The quantitative characteristics may be discrete or continuous. In the case of numerical values like number of petals in a flower, number of days in which rain occurred in a month etc. are whole numbers and are called discrete variables. If there may occur many values with in an interval, we call it as continuous variables.

The Agromet/Livestock advisories are issued on the basis of weather forecasts made at the meteorological centers. These forecasts are made by numerical methods which employ the process of solving the equations governing the motion of the air. For solving the equations, observations of various meteorological parameters such as pressure, temperature, wind direction and speed and other weather variables are required. The observations are taken at specified times called synoptic hours in all the observatories located throughout the World. The instruments used to measure the weather parameters are housed in the observatory. Instruments used for the measurement of different elements are given below:

21.1 Automatic Weather Station

Automatic Weather Station, popularly known as AWS, is an electronic device and an automated version of the traditional weather station. Numerous weather sensors are connected to the system which automatically records and stores weather data. It is quite useful in remote areas where no frequent access is possible. The system requires hardware as well as software to log in, store, display, retrieve and analyze the data. The digital data recorded from AWS can be downloaded to the laptop through the memory device. The same digital data can be converted to the actual values indicating various weather parameters through the software provided along with the AWS. It should be also maintained in the desktop of PC/AT so that the data are doubly assured. Every AWS has its own software depending upon the manufactures. Time interval can be fixed for recording weather data depending upon the purpose since it is a continuous recorder. Continuous AWS data are integrated at hourly or half-hourly interval for monitoring weather data, otherwise enormous data are continuously stored and no way are used. Of course, continuous weather display is possible for monitoring weather conditions spatially and temporarily.

Automatic Weather Station consists of a datalogger, rechargeable battery, telemetry (optional) and the meteorological sensors with an attached solar panel. The system may report in near real time via GPRS or save the data for later recovery. Majority of automatic weather stations possesses normally Thermometer Sensor for measuring temperature; Anemometer for measuring wind speed; Wind vane for measuring wind direction; Hygrometer for measuring relative humidity; Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure; Rain gauge for measuring rainfall and Pyranometer for measuring solar radiation. Automatic weather stations are based around a programmable datalogger that measures the sensors, then processes, stores, and transmits the data. Dataloggers have wide operating temperature ranges, on-board instructions, programmable execution intervals and input channels for commonly used sensors. Wind vector, wet bulb, histogram and sample on maxima or minima are standard in the datalogger instruction sets. Most sensors can be measured directly without external signal conditioning. Data are typically viewed and stored in the units of your choice(e.g., wind speed in mph, m/s, knots). Measurement rates and data recording intervals are independently programmable, allowing calculation of 15 minute, hourly, and daily data values from 1 minute or 1 second measurements, for example. Conditional outputs, such as rainfall intensity and wind gusts, can also be recorded. The program can be modified at any time to accommodate different sensor configurations or new data processing requirements.

According to “Artha-sastra”, first book on Governance, Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade, world?s first meteorological Instrument, a “Rain Gauge”, apparently a circular vessel with 20 fingers equivalent width and 8 fingers equivalent depth were installed by Kautilya (Chanakya) during 350-281BC throughout the Mauryan empire (Rainfall measurement:: 1 adhaka = 12mm, I drona = 40 to 50 mm). He is the first person to identify country?s economy depends on Rainfall. Good yield of rain-fed crop requires rainfall of 16 dronas was essential and 4 dronas rainfall is sufficient, also identified rainy season July to December wherein 2/3 annual rainfall receives during Mid-August to October end, now as per IMD norms Southwest monsoon season. He also identified his empire consists of FOUR CLIMATIC zones Tundra/Tropical Rain forest/Semiarid and Arid zones. With the modern seafarers, Columbus (1451-1506) Americus Vespucius (1454-1512) Italian Explorers, James Cook (1728-1779), British Explorer, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1529), Vasco-de-gama (14601524) Portuguese Explorer and other Navigators of 15th to 18th Century faced severe cyclonic storm and rough weather over high sea felt the need of Meteorological and Navigational equipments. Inventions of modern day instruments started. For Navigators, Quadrant, Mariners Campus (dry), Sand glasses for time measurement (800-900AD) and accurate mechanical Watch (1759) were invented. From the term “NAVAGATHI”, modern term of “NAVIGATION” born. With the introduction of Hot air balloon flight in 18th Century, Air flights (after 1903) our knowledge of weather of upper levels of the atmosphere – knowledge of heights of standard pressure altitudes, Upper Air Temperature, Humidity, Wind direction and speed upto Troposphere. Radio-sonde ascents were commenced in 1936. Radars and Satellite images further increased knowledge about weather and assisting for the preparation of weather inferences useful for Seafarers, flight operators and General Public, Agriculturists, Live-stock managements, national level planners, trade and economists.

Weather is the integrated effect of the atmospheric conditions at any given instant. Climate is the collective state of the atmosphere at any given place or over an area within a specified period of time (usually over 30 years? period).The branch of meteorology that deals with the science of climate is known as Climatology. Primarly the elements of climate are sunshine (solar energy), temperature, moisture and winds. Climate elements vary regionally and temporally. The most fundamental control of weather and climate is the unequal heating and cooling of the atmosphere in different parts of the earth. The zone of maximum solar radiation shifts northward and southward during the year, thereby producing seasons. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere and vice-versa. Broadly speaking, both the hemispheres have two distinct seasonal climates in a year namely, the summer or comparatively hot climate and the winter or the cold climate. The atmospheric circulation patterns over the two hemispheres also undergo changes during these two distinct seasons. The change is phenomenal in the tropical regions. In the summer monsoon region, there is reversal of wind flow in the lower troposhere, sudden increase of precipitation etc. Besides the change in the general circulation pattern with the season, the climate of a place is affected by variety of local features such as vegetation, nature of the surface, the slope of the land etc. On the basis of climate, the period of a year has been divided into four seasons in India. They are:

Cold weather season (Winter season) – December and January; Pre-monsoon or Hot weather season – March to May; Southwest or Summer Monsoon season – June to September and Post-monsoon season - October to December. Each of these seasons has its own characteristic features of pressure and temperature distributions, winds, precipitation, humidity etc. The major synoptic disturbances in the Indian region also differ with the season.

From very early times, humans were astonished, fascinated and frightened by the weather events and the dynamism of changes that weather brought around them. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since the nineteenth century. He has tried to predict or forecast the weather mainly based on many indicators around. In the earliest record of weather forecast, the Babylonians have predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology in 650 BC. In 904 AD, Ibn Wahshiyya, an Iraqi alchemist and agriculturist in his work Nabatean Agriculture have discussed the behavior of plants and animals also along with atmospheric, planetary, solar and lunar signs in weather forecasting. This is perhaps the first work that have discussed about the animal and bird indicators for weather forecast. Though there are a variety of end uses to modern weather forecasts, indigenous knowledge and application of weather forecasts were mainly for agricultural operations. Farmers have to rely on weather forecasts to decide on what work has to be done on any particular day. They are astute weather watchers and are quick to recognize weather that is either favourable or unfavourable to their production systems. In traditional weather forecasting, the farmers has identified a set of indicators and developed a reliability factor for each of them. Predicting weather is also an important cultural component for farmers, as it is common for farmers to discuss weather indicators on the street, markets and with family members.

Farmers have used traditional knowledge to understand weather and climate patterns in order to make decisions about crop and irrigation cycles. This knowledge has been gained through many decades of experience, and has been passed on from previous generations, and the knowledge is also adapted to local conditions and needs. But the scientific forecasts are formulated at a much larger scale and so access to get location specific rainfall forecast to take proper decision at the farm level is very limited. Besides forecasting weather, the farmers has also evolved several coping strategies in rain-fed systems across the world and so today many international development agencies, universities and research institutions have started focusing on indigenous knowledge and have incorporated it in development perspectives.

The sole science of meteorology is to deal with weather forecasting while livestock advisory based on weather forewarning is dealt with multidisciplinary approach in the field of livestock meteorology for the benefit of the livestock farmers. In this context, the current status of livestock advisory based on medium range weather forecasting is highlighted so that the tools for livestock advisory can be initiated and developed by the concerned for the benefit of livestock farmers in similar lines. Information on weather forecasting is used in various society linked sectors and animal husbandry component is one of them (Fig. 17.1).

The establishment and the longevity of the organisms from one to complex multiple cells are controlled both by climate and weather in a region. Climate(macro level physical factor) of a region permits a particular organism to initiate its establishment, while the prevailing weather (micro level of the climate factor) which is known to occur within that climate controls the growth and multiplication of the selected organisms and thus proving the immense need of both climate and weather to living organisms. Within this science, when the weather is favorable for a particular organism throughout the year in a region, which cause disease to higher organisms then that region is termed as endemic region to a particular disease, where the management is focused towards strategical(long term) and tactical(short term) approaches. When in a year, from few weeks to few months the weather may be highly favorable for the outbreak of a particular disease, then that region is named as epidemic region for that disease and by establishing scientific link between weather and disease causing organism, it is possible to forecast / predict disease initiation in time and practice tactical management. Among the weather factors, temperature(both maximum and minimum), rainfall (amount and its distribution), relative humidity(both maximum and minimum) wind speed, dew, fog and mist would influence the organisms causing disease in livestock both in positive and negative terms. This is the new emerging area in the field of animal climatology and an attempt has been made to integrate animal diseases with climate and weather factors based on the available literature. Scope for research is vast in this new area and is discussed in a sub-head of the conclusion.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of animals and has a great potential for causing severe economic losses in susceptible cloven-hoofed animals. FMD has been classified as a Transboundary Animal Disease (TAD) which is highly contagious or transmissible and has the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, and causing serious socio-economic consequences. FMD has constituted a recognised threat to the health of livestock for over 500 years and still remains a serious hazard to the productivity of animal populations throughout the world. The large numbers of virus serotypes and subtypes, the ease of transmission and the limited efficacy of vaccination make control complicated and difficult. Contribution of environmental variables for emergence and distribution of infectious diseases has long been recognized by many researchers. India is largely subject to four seasons: winter (January and February), summer (March to May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to December). There are reports on effect of environmental parameters such as relative humidity, windspeed and air temperature on the spread of the disease. FMD is endemic and at a high prevalence in many countries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia and is also present in parts of South America. Europe, North and Central America, the Pacific nations and the Caribbean are free from the disease. FMD in India is the biggest impediment to growth of livestock sector. FMD outbreaks occur in India throughout the year. The outbreaks occurred round the year with maximum occurrence during October to March, and in May and June (Fig. 15.1). Foot and mouth disease is associated with an aphthovirus (family picornaviridae) which occurs as seven major serotypes: A,O,C,SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 and Asia1. FMD is characterized by fever, profuse salivation, vesicles in the mouth and on the feet and a drastic reduction in milk production; sudden death in young stock may occur (Radostits et al., 2006).