eChapters

Mesothelioma

• Arising from the mesothelial lining of serous cavities
• It is very difficult to differentiate from carcinoma, reactive mesothelial hyperplasia
• Round to polygonal cells
• Arranged mostly in clusters
• Centrally located hyperchromatic nuclei

Testicular Tumours

Seminoma

• Cells were round exhibiting anisocytosis
• Round to oval nuclei
• Single distinct eosinophilic to basophilic nucleoli
• Cytoplasm scanty

Sertoli Cell Tumours

• Cellularity - High, anisocytosis
• Nucleus round to oval, megakaryosis, 1-3 basophilic nucleoli
• Chromatin coarse and granular
• Cytoplasm vacuolated

Canine Thyroid Tumours

• Occurs as carcinoma
• Blood contamination also seen
• Cluster of cells
• Free nuclei seen in the pale-blue cytoplasm
• Dark blue to black pigment present in the cytoplasm
• Amorphous pink materials represents colloid
• Colloid and pigmented granuls indicates the thyroid origin
• Round to oval nuclei

Location is important

Since, one should recognize whether cells belong to that area and / or not

Basic aim

• To establish an aetiological and/or morphological diagnosis in order to obtain a more accurate prognosis

Salient Points in Cytological Examination

• Cytology is a joint effort between the clinician and cytologist
• Adequate history, clinical signs and methods of collection should be intimated
• Interpretation suffers if done in a vacuum of information
• Cytology is an rapid, inexpensive technique in tumour diagnosis

Check the Following

Different types of Romanowsky type of stains are used for staining the cytological smears. It will give excellent cytoplasmic and nuclear details and it also stains bacteria. The following stains are commonly used. e.g., Wrights, Giemsa, Leishman, Wright-Giemsa, May-Grunwald-Giemsa, Leishman-Giemsa, Haematoxylin and Eosin, Diffquik stains, Trichrome stains, Papanicolaou or Sano modification.

Staining Methods

Leishman-Giemsa

• Cover the smear with LG stain for a minute
• Dilute with tap water/Distilled water/ phosphate buffered saline pH 6.87.2
• Allow to stain for about 20 min
• Wash in water

May-Grunwald-Giemsa Stain (MGG)
Fix slide in absolute methanol
Protocol
1) Fix the slides with May-Grunwald reagent (15 drops) for three minutes.
2) Without removing the reagent, the same amount of distilled water is poured on the slide and allowed to stand for three more minutes.
3) The dilute May-Grunwald reagent is poured off and the slide is immersed for 8-12 minutes in a watch glass containing Giemsa reagent (15 drops of concentrated reagent are used for each 10 ml. distilled water). The slides should be immersed upside down in the solution to prevent the precipitate formed in the staining mixture from adhering to the preparation.
4) The slides are washed with tap water and dried in air or with filter paper. The distilled water must be neutral or otherwise buffered. With bone marrow or lymph node aspirates a longer staining time is recommended on account of the greater cell concentration. We recommend controlling the staining time with the microscope.

Measuring cell size, diameter, length, distance between cells, area, etc, are important indicators of the identification of cell types and the physiological or pathological state of cells and tissues. ImageJ is a useful program that allows researchers and scientists to work with microscopy images for cytomorphological detailing.
The steps to measure cell size are:
A. Open Your Image in ImageJ: First, open the image containing the cells you want to measure.
B. Set the Scale (Optional): If your image has a known scale (e.g., if you used a microscope with a calibrated scale bar), you can set it inImageJ. This step ensures accurate measurements.
Go to Analyze > Set Scale. Enter the known distance (in pixels) and the corresponding physical distance (e.g., micrometers). Click OK.
C. Choose the Measurement Tool: ImageJ provides several measurement tools. The most common ones for cell size are: Area Measurement: Use the Polygon Selection Tool to outline the cell, and then go to Analyze > Measure.
D. Length Measurement: Use the Straight-Line Selection Tool to measure the length of cell projections (e.g., neurites or filopodia).
E. Record Measurements: After selecting the appropriate tool, click and drag to measure the cell area or length. Press’ t’ to record the measurement. Repeat for multiple cells if needed.
F. View Results: The measured values will appear in the Results window. You can access the results by going to Analyze > Measure or by opening the Results window directly.

• General considerations

 • Scope

 • Exfoliative cytopathology

 • Interventional cytopathology (Biopsy)

 • FNAC

 • Imprint cytopathology

 • Crush smear cytopathology

Introduction
Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), a condition under which a plant is unable to produce functional pollen, is widespread among higher plants. CMS systems represent a valuable tool in the production of hybrid seed in self-pollinating crop species, including maize, rice, cotton, and a number of vegetable crops. Hybrids often exhibit heterosis, more commonly known as hybrid vigor, whereby hybrid progeny exhibit superior growth characteristics relative to either of the parental lines. CMS systems can be of considerable value in facilitating efficient hybrid seed production.
Male-sterility-inducing cytoplasms were recognized in the 1900s. Bateson and Gairdner reported male sterility in flax in 1921, was inherited from the female parent, although genes passed from both the male and female parents affected its expression. Chittenden and Pellow (1927) recognized that male sterility in flax was due to an interaction between the cytoplasm and nucleus, with the male sterility conditioned by the homozygous recessive nuclear genotype in combination with the sterility-inducing cytoplasm.

Data Analysis: In the process of data analysis, connections or differences supporting or clashing with unique or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to decide to what validity data can be said to show any conclusions.

Dactylis glomerata L (syn. Bromus glomeratus (L.) Scop. (Poaceae): Eng.- Orchard Grass; Kash.- Dramun [W]. Perennial bunch grass,usually in dense shaded forest areas. A very important pasture and hay grass of temperate grasslands. Culms glabrous, erect. Inflorescences are erect panicles bearing spikelets in dense one sided clusters.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 209).

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle breeding and proper disposal or sale of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as per cent damage.

Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.

Dark reactions: It is light independent reactions occurs during daytime. This includes C₃, C₄ and CAM pathway involving the utilization of NADPH and ATP to fix CO₂ into carbohydrates. It is also called as stromal reactions.

Day neutral plants: The plants that flowers regardless of the length of the period of the light that is exposed to. They are called as day neutral plants.

DCMU (Dichlorophenyl dimethyl urea or diuron): An herbicide that inhibits non-cyclic photophosophorylation specifically blocks the electron flow at the quinone acceptors of PSII, by competing for the binding site of plastoquinone that is normally occupied by PQB.

DCPIP (Dichlorophenol indophenols): A dye often used as artificial hydrogen acceptor to demonstrate in Hills reaction in isolated chloroplast in laboratory. The oxidized form is blue in alkali and red in acid, while reduced form is colourless.

8.1 General Description

Based upon ethnic values and culture, both private and common property land tenure regime is found in existence in the shifting cultivation system. In Odisha state of India, shifting cultivation locally called as podu, there exists both private and common property regime (Dash 2006). In case of Meghalaya state, while the private land ownership pattern does exist among the Khasi and Karbi tribes, the Garo tribes, on the other hand, resort to community land ownership pattern (Deb et al., 2013). Furthermore, an ethno-agrarian economy based on shifting cultivations is self-sufficient, and such shifting cultivators typically rely on outside sources for alleviation of their economic demands very infrequently, if at all (Gupta 1994). The use of human labour is the key input in the shifting cultivation system and the practice of mutual exchange of labour amongst these shifting cultivator communities is also not uncommon. In practices like harvesting, the groups of families join hands together to harvest the crop of each plot one by one. This practice of community labouring reduces drudgery and increases work productivity. During this harvesting time, it is said that farmers exchange their innovations and look at each other’s innovations as they work. Further, it is customary to arrange food and drinks by the family of the plot which is being harvested. The community recognizes these harvest periods as festive events which makes their work enjoyable. The case of village named Nawalparasi, Nepal, shows that shifting cultivators work in an innovative way in their community in which the part of the village land is set aside and is cultivated by the members of whole community jointly. The benefit they harvest from this area is used to fund for teachers’ salaries in community school (kerkhoff and Sharma 2006). Further, the close knit and kinship ties are not only necessary for labour sharing but also important for technology diffusion among the members (NAEB 2008). The division of labour exists between men and women. It varies from place to place. The Manipur shifting cultivation characteristics portray that the women predominate in seed selection and planting, weeding and other operations, the activities like cutting of the trees in jungle, clearing, burning are generally done by men Both men and women participate in harvesting of produce and so harvested produces are carried to the villages by head loading.

Abstract

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo, a plant species native to Indian Himalayas (Badola and Aitken, 2003; Ved et al., 2003), is one of 110 orchids known for their medicinal properties (Jain 1991; Lal et al., 2004). Known earlier as Orchis latifolia auct. non Linn., D. hatagirea has traditionally been used in indigenous system of medicine in India as ‘Hatajari’ or ‘Salam Panja’. The plant has therapeutic, ornamental and ecological significance (Gupta et al., 1998; Vij et al., 1992; Kala, 2000a). Due to over extraction from nature for medicinal use, the species has become threatened and categorized as critically endangered species (Ved and Tandon, 1998; Kala, 2000b; Ved et al., 2003; Bhattarai et al., 2014). This contribution provides insight into the botanical background, distribution, medicinal importance, threat status, cultivation and commercial aspects, and strategies for its conservation and sustainable utilization.

1. Introduction

Milk and milk products constitute essential dietary components for a vast majority of the population. India with annual production of more than 135.6 million tonnes has emerged as leading milk producing nation. The per capita per day availability of milk in India is more than 290 g. Buffalo milk accounts for 57% of the total milk produced in India. Ethnic dairy products account for 90% of all dairy products consumed (Aneja et al., 2002). Many health benefits have been attributed to fermented dairy products and probiotic microorganisms (Salminen et al., 1998). The market for functional foods, nutraceuticals, wellness foods and beverages is fast growing. The harmful effects of synthetic drinks have propelled health conscious consumers to go for natural and traditional drinks. In search of better returns, the Indian dairy industry is widening its focus to include traditional milk products, and these are emerging as new profit centres for the organised sector.

Traditional dairy products have several advantages. They require low capital investment and give high profit margin. They are more appealing to the Indian palate. Dahi or curd is the most popular indigenous fermented dairy product. There are numerous references to dahi in vedic literature. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (Anon, 1976) describes dahi as a product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring (natural or otherwise), using harmless lactic acid or other bacterial cultures. Indian dahi and its western counterpart yoghurt differ considerably in terms of cultures used and their bouquet and flavour profiles (Aneja et al., 2002). The major flavor compound in dahi is diacetyl. Dahi made from buffalo milk has a firm body and white glossy appearance, with a cream layer on top. Mixed mesophilic cultures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, Lactococcus lactis subsp diacetylactis along with Leuconostoc species are grown together for production of dahi.

Abtract: Dahlia, tuberous flowering plant, is valued for potted flowering and garden crop worldwide. The genus contains ~85 species native to Mexico, central America and Columbia. Numerous phenotypes (star/ anemone/ paeony/ decorative/ pompon/ cactus/ water lily flowered) and cultivars (giant/ large/ small/ miniature/ ball/ pompon/ mignon single) are available on world market. Cultivated dahlias are allotetraploids with great diversity in flower colour/ forms. Limited genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Precise elucidation of the genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled in the creation of new flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression discussed. Research succeeded in mutation breeding and interspecific hybridization and colourful dahlia varieties have been developed by individual enthusiasts, nurserymen and flower breeders. Complicated genetics, heterozygosity often pose significant challenges to breeders. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Dahlia is a highly valued ornamental crop recognized for its large, colourful and diverse flower forms. This chapter introduces its origin, classification, botanical characteristics, genetic diversity and commercially important varieties. It discusses propagation through seeds, tubers and other methods, together with climate and soil requirements, planting, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation and crop regulation. Staking, pinching, disbudding and other cultural operations are explained for producing quality stems. The chapter also covers major insect pests, diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling, grading and yield. Its practical approach makes it useful for commercial growers and students of ornamental crop production.

Dahlia (Dahlia spp.) syn. Georgina belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). Dahlia was named after “Professor Andreas Dahl”, a Swedish pupil of Linnaeus and author of Observations Botanicae. In India, dahlia is grown as potted plant and landscape uses but it is a poor crop as commercial flower due to shorter commercial life and its potentialities have not been exploited so far. Therefore, there is need to originate more and more new quality cultivars. Dahlias are half-hardy perennials with tuberous roots. Stems are mostly erect, branched, glabrous or scabrous. The leaves 1-3 pinnate, with slightly serrated margin are produced opposite at each node on the stem. They bear flowers on a long, stiff stems well above the foliage. Ray florets are neutral or pinnate and disc florets perfect.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The wild species of Dahlia are natives of Mexico and Central America, where some hybridization and selection had probably already occurred prior to their introduction into Europe at the end of the 18^th century (Crane et al., 1947 and Sorensen, 1969). The dahlia has been in Europe for over 200 years. It came from Mexico to the Botanical Gardens in Madrid towards the end of the 18^th century and was named by Abbe Cavanille in honour of Andreas Dahl, Swedish scientist-cum-environmentalist. The dahlia was introduced into England in 1803, but from a few varieties it soon had more than 300 varieties within the first 15 years. The initial named species imported into Europe were D. pinnata, D. rosea and D. coccinea. The first dahlias grown outside of Madrid were single (open-centred) and multi-ray open centre flowered, but it was not long before the horticultural growers of the day discovered the dahlia was a natural hybrid and when grown from seed, it readily changed its form and colour, Thus it has a range of different types. Further introduction, accompanied by hybridization and selection, have resulted in the production of a wide range of flower, forms and colours. Most of the garden types have been developed from D. variabilis. The first double flowered varieties were called Show and Fancy types. The show were self-coloured, ball like flowers, while the Fancy ones were multi-coloured.

During the mid 1800’s, these Show and Fancy flowers attained cult status with gardeners and several thousand different varieties were recorded. Other forms followed, in 1829 the first Anemone flowered dahlia appeared and then in 1850 the first Pompon was raised in Germany and was named after the bobble on a French sailor’s hat. The origin of the cactus and Decorative type belongs to the arrival of ‘Juarrezii’. According to the written records it was important as a piece of tuber from Mexico in 1872 to Holland. M. Van de Berg of Uttrecht received this so called species from Mexico and released stock of the variety in 1874. Subsequently, ‘Juarrezii’, named after a President of Mexico, was introduced into the UK by W. Cullingford a Vice President of the NDS and distributed by H. Cannell after 1880. Collerettes are the last form of dahlia to have been raised, that has their origin in France and is due to sporting of dahlias at Jardin Botanique de Lyon at the end of the 19^th century.