eChapters

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil fertility can be considered to be a measure of the soil’s ability to sustain satisfactory crop growth, both in the short and longer-term. Organic farming recognizes the soil as being central to a sustainable farming system. It could be argued that organically managed soils require a higher level of baseline fertility because shortfalls cannot be made up by applications of soluble fertilizers. Soil fertility is determined by a set of interactions between the physical and chemical environments of the system and by biological activity. Organic matter is linked intrinsically to soil fertility, because it is important in maintaining good soil physical conditions (e.g. soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity) and is an important nutrient reserve. Organic matter contains most of the soil reserve of N and large proportions of other nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur.

Word manure derived from French ‘Manoeuvrer, means to manipulate, to work, to produce crop.

11.1. Sources of organic wastes

Cattle shed wastes, dung, urine and slurry from biogas plants.

Human habitation wastes-night soil, human urine, town refuse, sewage, sludge and sullage.

Poultry jitter, droppings of sheep and goat.

Slaughterhouse wastes-bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoof meal, fish wastes.

Byproducts of agro industries-oil cakes, bagasse and press mud, fruit and vegetable processing wastes etc.

Before the discovery of chemical fertilizer in early 20^th century, organic manures and growing of legumes were the ways of replenishing soil fertility. The only other way was leaving land fallow for a few years before its re-cultivation, a practice followed in shifting cultivation (jhuming) (Garbyal, 1999). This was also true for India, where although the ?rst single superphosphate plant was set up in 1906 in Ranipet (Tamil Nadu), the real use of fertilizer started with the manufacture of urea, the ?rst plant for which was set up in 1959 at Sindri (Bihar) (Tandon, 2014). Organic manures could meet crop-nutrient needs in early days because the average grain yield of most cereals was about 1.5–2.0 t ha^–1, while the average yield of pulses was 0.5–0.75 t ha^–1. However, the crop production scenario changed rapidly after the introduction of dwarf, high-yielding varieties of wheat from Mexico, which led to the “Green Revolution” (Swaminathan, 2013). This was followed by the development of semi-dwarf, high-yielding varieties of rice and hybrids of maize, sorghum and pearl millet. These varieties/ hybrids of cereals needed 100–150 kg N ha^–1 in one growing season, and this could be met only by urea or other N fertilizers; organic manures had no chance and their use became almost nil over a period of next 25 years or so. Well-off young farmers cannot even think of making manure heaps or compost pits, the job is too hard and not a clean one. However, what is ignored is the fact, that organic manures not only supply plant nutrients but also build up soil organic matter, which improves soil physical properties, helps in storing moisture and is the elixir of life for the soil biota (Lal, 2014). A large numbers of reports are available on the effect of adding organic manures and crop residues on improving soil physical (Hati et al., 2007; Brar et al., 2015) and chemical and biological properties of soil (Prasad et al., 1999; Prasad and Mishra, 2001;Sharma et al., 2009; Prasad et al. 2014). Thanks for the organic farming (Prasad, 2005), the interest in organic manures and composts has increased in India and it is now a sought after material. However, it has not entered the main stream of crop production.

The market of organic products is growing globally every year. This organic market expansion makes it possible for farmers to reap the benefits of a trade with relatively high price premiums. Organic farming is carried on in almost all countries of the world. The share of organic farms in overall farmland and in terms of numbers of holdings is growing continuously. The market for organic products is also growing very rapidly, not only in Europe, North America and Japan, where the largest markets are to be found, but also in many emerging economies in transition. In India, an organic movement is now emerging on different levels i.e. producer groups, trainers and advisors, certification bodies and processors and traders.

5.1. Organic matter

In sandy soil, the sticky and slimy organic materials cement the sand particles together to form aggregates.

In clayey soil, it modifies the properties of clay by reducing its cohesiveness and making clay more crumby.

Introduction

Soil forms the base of the lithosphere on earth and is a fundamental and irreplaceable versatile three dimensional dynamic system that supports majority of terrestrial plant and animal life on earth. This soil system contains mineral (sand, slit and clay forming basic soil structure) and organic matter as well as marginal air and water contents. The soil organic matter content of the soil system constitutes every fraction of matter in various stages of decomposition that once was associated with the body, body parts, exudates, tissues and cells of living organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms. It is the product of continuous cycling of the compounds synthesized by autotrophic plants among the three kingdoms viz microbes, plants and animals. The decomposition of the organic residues in soil is performed primarily by the resident soil microflora termed as microbial decomposers; though initially the larger and complex organic material is broken down, devoured upon, chewed, regurgitated and transformed into smaller bits by larger soil faunal forms (earthworms, beetles, springtails, and collembola, the macro (large) to mesofauna) on which soil microbial forms could act upon.

Organic meat food products are choice products for health conscious people. These are the products produced mainly in most natural way without using fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators in their feed and fodders. In addition, meat animals are also reared without growth hormones, antibiotics drugs etc. and grazing of the animals is a prerequisite in organic farming system.

The term organic farming was first time used by Lord Northbourne. The term organic farming was derived from his concept of “the farm as organism”. It is a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming. In 1991, the European Commission formulated the first government system to regulate organic labelling. In India, standards for organic agriculture were announced in May 2001 and the National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) is administered under the Ministry of Commerce. The concept of organic meat food products has been emphasized now a day due to animal welfare point of view, consumer’s conscious ness, less residue level of chemicals, antibiotics and drugs, Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), Foot and mouth disease (FMD), genetically modified food etc.

Organic meat food products as a whole are dependent on the life stages of the livestock like its origin, feeding, housing, health, breeding, transportation and slaughter. The other factors accounting for organic foods are its production, harvesting, preservation and processing. Inspite of low growth rate of organic red meat globally, growth in dairy, egg and poultry is increasing day by day. At present 1.2 million hectares (0.6%) of Indian land is producing organic products (Willer and Kelcher, 2011).

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a precious resource for mankind. Since time immemorial these plants have been put to medicinal use by Hakims, Vaidas, Ayurvedic practioners and of course the common man (Gupta et al. 2016). It is because these plants possess a lot of qualities for curing the most common or dreaded diseases without any side effects (Gupta et al. 2016). Unfortunately, with the onslaught of human population explosion, industrialization, fertilization and deforestation, the rich medicinal plants wealth has suffered a massive damage. A large number of medicinal plants are now at the verge of extinction which requires their preservation.

India which stands blessed well vast medicinal plants diversity is estimated to have about 30,000 different plant species world over having accepted medicinal value in Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Allopathy, Tibetan etc. In fact, out of the 18 hot spots in the world with regard to occurrence of medicinal plants two are confined to India. These two hot spots are represented by the Eastern and the North western Himalayas, and the western Ghats with very high degree of endemism. These are indeed the treasure house of about 30,000 or around 45,000 medicinal and aromatic plant species pertaining to medicinal culture (Gupta et al. 2016). Out of these nearly 6000-7500 plant species have been very much exploited for the last 5,000 years traditional system to medicines and are likely to extinct.

Realizing that nematodes cannot be eliminated, and that we must live with them, the overall goal is to keep the population density as low as possible. The economic threshold is the density of nematodes where the losses incurred exceed the cost of nematode management. It is not advisable to depend on a single method to control nematodes. Efficient management requires judicious and careful integration of several which will result in reduction of nematode populations. Important components of non chemical methods of nematode management program are considered in this chapter.

17.1. Organic Amendments

Manure and fertilizer applications are essential part of growing any crop. Besides supplying required essential nutrients theyhelp in many ways directly or indirectly by suppressing harmful organisms including phytonematodes. The use of organic amendments against nematodes was demonstrated by Linford et al., in as early as 1938. FYM and cattle urine have found to reduce nematode population. Biogas plant waste slurry was found to be effective for nematode management. Compost of water hyacinth, oilcakes, cellulose amendments like sawdust, wheat straw, rice husk, rice hull ash, green manuring with legumes, green leaf incorporation are useful to keep nematode populations low. Non - edible oilcakes like those of neem, karanj, mahua, caster, cotton as well as edible oilcakes groundnut, mustard sesame, coconut have been recommended at 2 - 2.5 t/ha for reduction of root knot and other nematode population in soil. Miscellaneous substances like decaffeinated tea waste, rice hull ash, chicken manure, tannery and food and fruit processing waste, market and domestic organic refuse, dead vegetation and crop stalks, wood shaving, etc. have been recommended for root knot nematode management. Castor leaves (40g/kg) along with NPK at 75:25:37.5 kg/ha achieved reduction of M. javanica population on tomato.

27.1 Introduction
Processed organic food typically consists of solely organic ingredients. If there are any non-organic components, a specified proportion of the food’s plant and animal ingredients must be organic, and any non-organic ingredients must meet specific agricultural standards. Organic foods should not contain artificial additives and are usually processed using fewer synthetic methods and materials, avoiding practices like chemical ripening, food irradiation, and genetic modification. While synthetic pesticides are prohibited, non-synthetic pesticides are permitted. Milk from cows—or any other animal—serves as a useful environmental indicator for measuring pollutants and pesticides because substances consumed by the animal end up in the milk it produces. If contaminants are present in the grass, they will ultimately be found in the milk.

27.2 Beyond these four main factors have led to the increasing interest by farmers and consumers in organic dairy farming
1. Consumer concerns about food safety and animal welfare
2. Overproduction of food (perceived as low in quality)
3. The environmental effects of intensive farming

Paddy is cultivated about 45 m ha in India, less than 1% is under organic cultivation.

16.1. Varieties

Good quality fine varieties like Ponni, Super ponni, insect and disease resistant varities must be selected for getting higher yield and returns.

16.2. Seeds

Organically produced seeds only must be used.

16.3. Seed Treatment

For 1 kg of seeds 20 g Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and 10 g Phospobacteria must be used with rice gruel.

Panchagavya spray @ 1% for treating the seeds.

Introduction

The hilly states in north eastern India are not only famous for their forest wealth and awesome wild assets. These states are also known for their track record in harvesting specific crops and fruits. Some of the iconic ones are like, “Assam tea” which is famous in and outside India and popularity of “Khasi mandarin” is also well known. The small landlocked state Tripura produces quality pineapples in abundant amounts, where cv. Queen is popular among the growers. Sikkim and other states of north eastern region of India is known for their Organic Farming techniques, which is mostly attributed the nature of hill farming on this region. North-East is rich in horticultural aspect viz., f loriculture with a rich variety of medicinal plants grown there along with various fruits and vegetables. An analysis of NSSO survey data on cultivation practices shows that the North-East hill states have retained traditional practices and show an inclination towards organic agriculture that is harnessed for the development of the region with ecological benefits.

1. Introduction
Organic polymers are large, chain-like molecules made up of repeating structural units (monomers) that are primarily carbon-based. These polymers are found both in nature and can be synthesized in labs, and they form the basis of many materials we use daily. Here are some main types of organic polymers (Harris, F. W., 1981).
2. Natural Organic Polymers
These are polymers found in nature. Examples include:
• Proteins: Polymers made up of amino acid monomers, serving as the building blocks for tissues and enzymes in organisms.
• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, which are composed of nucleotide monomers, store genetic information in cells.
• Polysaccharides: Carbohydrate polymers like cellulose (found in plant cell walls), starch (energy storage in plants), and glycogen (energy storage in animals).
• Natural Rubber: Derived from latex in plants, primarily from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).
3. Synthetic Organic Polymers
These are human-made polymers produced through chemical synthesis.
Common examples include:
• Polyethylene: A plastic used in bags and containers, made from ethylene monomers.
• Polystyrene: Used in packaging, insulation, and disposable cutlery, made from styrene monomers.
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): A durable polymer used in pipes, cables, and construction, made from vinyl chloride monomers.
• Nylon and Polyester: Common synthetic fi bers used in textiles.

Organic farming has undergone rapid growth in recent years across various agricultural and livestock sectors, including poultry production. The escalation of health concerns stemming from the presence of numerous medications and pesticide residues in conventional products has underscored the importance of ensuring the quality of egg and meat products. In this global context, there is a notable surge in demand for organic meat, prompting nations to explore organic poultry production.

Organic food production is as much a state of mind as it is a production system. The organic farmer must understand how everything is interrelated and how one set of circumstances will influence other factors in how the plant grows. A strong, healthy plant is much more important in an organic system then a conventional system. A two to three year leaning curve must be accepted by anyone intending to switch from conventional to organic farming. What works one year may fail the next.

Pulses are an important source of proteins. One hundred grams of pulses contain about 25-32 grams of proteins and several amino acids which are not made by the human body (Sidhu, 2015). These are the staple food both for vegetarians and non-vegetarians of the country. India is not only the largest consumer of the pulses in the world but it is also the largest producer and importer. The global production of pulses is about 70 million tonnes, of which India’s share is around 25 percent.

The consumption of pulses is historically part and parcel of Indian culture. However, over a period of time, the availability of pulses has declined from69 gram per capita per day in 1961 to 51 gram in 1971 and 38grams in 1981. Marginally it arose to 42 gram in 1991 which already declined to 30 gram in 2001. The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) was started by the union Government for pulses during 2007. It did not result in a significant increase in the output because pulses are grown only in 16 per cent area which is irrigated. The area under cultivation for pulses varied from 23 million hectare in 2009- 2010 and 26 million hectares 2021-2022 and production was14.6 mt. to 28.9 mt. At present the availability of pulses is about 42 g per capita per day.

Summary

The use of organic resources in modern agriculture implies the production of crops through organic farming without doing any damage to the environment. Synthetic chemicals are never used in organic farming. This avoids having much pressure on nature’s non-renewable resources used in farming activities. In this unit, we shall discuss many organic resources, their quality and management within ISFM.

Sources of plant nutrients include residual soil nutrients, crop residues, green manures, animal manures and biosolids, biologically-fixed nitrogen and manufactured fertilizers. Crops use plant nutrient from all sources but the nutrient elements must be transformed into the ionic forms before being taken by plants. The amount of nutrients provided by different sources varies between and within agro-ecosystems. Integrated plant nutrient management identifies and uses all available sources of plant nutrients

Rose (Rosa centifolia Linn) belongs to the family Rosaceae is known as flower of love which is cultivated throughout the world. The traditionally grown rose f lowers are fragile wild, bloom only for a limited period. They are found in a few colours of red, pink, deep crimson vis-a-vis white colour. However, with the development of the clonal technology, tissue culture and hybridization, a wide variety of roses can be grown having different colours, fragrances, blooms and shapes. It is point to mention that from the 200 species of roses originally found there are more than 30,000 varieties available these days.

The cultivation of rose is believed to have started about 5.000 years ago in China. Initially, Romans started to cultivate the rose flower using organic manures for medicinal purposes and then tor aesthetic values. Briefly their medicinal values have been mentioned separately as reported by Gupta et al 2016. It is not until late 8th century that cultivation of roses was introduced into Europe. Unlike Europe and America where rosses have limited flowering period during the summer.

Globally saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is cultivated in regions spanning from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Countries like Iran, Spain, Italy, India, Greece, Turkey, Afghanistan, Morocco and Azerbaijan harbour suitable climatic and soil conditions required for its growth and harvesting (Mehdi and Reza, 2012). However, the crop is also cultivated on small scales inFrance, Switzerland, Israel, Pakistan, China, Egypt, United Arab Emirates and Japan. Recently its cultivation has been introduced in non-traditional countries like Australia, New Zealand, USA, Argentina and Chile (Fernandez, 2004). Globally, about 85 thousand hectares of land is under saffron cultivation, giving a produce of 288 MT. Iran leads with 90 per cent of total global share for saffron production (Baghalian et al., 2010) and 70% of global export earning a revenue of US$ 51million. India’s global share is about 4.5 per cent in production followed by Greece (2.5%), Morocco (0.9%), Spain (0.8%), Italy and China (0.3% each), Afghanistan (0.2%) and Azerbaijan (0.06%).

1. INTRODUCTION

Green Revolution Technologies (GRT) such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive high yielding varieties, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. have boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environment. The most unfortunate impacts of GRT on Indian Agriculture are imbalance in production, dependency on synthetic chemical fertilizers, increase in secondary and micronutrient deficiencies, increase in pesticide use, unscientific water management and distribution, reduction in productivity, reduction in quality of the produce, extinction of gene pool, environmental pollution and imbalance in social and economic status.

Moreover, today the rural economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence on outside inputs and day-by-day increase in price of these inputs. Further, Indian Agriculture will face the market competition due to globalization of trade as per World Trade Organization (WTO). Thus, apart from quantity, quality will be the important factor. Such varieties of concern and problems of modern Indian Agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, do-nothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. Therefore, for sustaining the productivity of the crop, maintaining the soil health and healthy ecosystem, there is a need for adoption of an alternative farming system, may be the organic farming.

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountain hills and resource poor areas of the country. It safeguards/improves quality of resources and environment. It is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment.

For a product to be called and labelled “organic”, it should have been produced from start (seed) to end (the produces, the consumer is buying) in an organic way. International Federation of Organic Movement (IFOAM) has clearly laid down the condition that in order to get organic certification to the produces, the seed used for sowing should also have been produced organically. To enter into organic agriculture, timely research has been warranted to study the strategies and efficacies of organic seed production to fulfill the global organic seed demand.

Organic seed production system involves use of organic seed quality enhancement treatments, integrated organic nutrient management practices viz., organic manures, green manures and biofertilizers etc., and integrated organic plant protection viz., agronomic practices, crop rotation, growing border/trap crops and use of botanicals, biopesticides and biocontrol agents apart from encouraging natural parasites, predators and parasitoids etc.

Introduction

Seed technology improves seed genetics and physiology. Variety creation, release, seed production, processing, storage, and certification are included. (Feistritzer, 1975). Organic farming began in the early 20th century due to constantly changing farming practices. Over 50 million hectares of certified organic agriculture are in Australia. “That discipline of study having to do with seed production, maintenance, quality and preservation” is seed technology. Organic seeds are fully produced with organic matter practices made with proven organic function and natural seed production, including seeding plants, with a set of guidelines prohibiting the use of manufactured products or chemicals to be sold as such. They must be produced by an accredited institution by an authorized person government agency. Organic seed is created by a planted crop and organically raised at least one generation for annual crops and two generations for annual and perennial plants. Organic farming is sustainable and eco-friendly. Farming needs better norms and standards to achieve biological goals. It is usually cold and people need lots of vegetables but have few organic, clean supplies. Organic farming in India needs a certain space and high-yield vegetable crops in national marketplaces to produce high-quality products. Indian agriculture uses chemical fertilizers, which can be minimized. Experiments have shown that it works well in conjunction. Inorganic and biological fertilizers boost yields, soil quality, and productivity.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

Soil is a living system and soil fertility is the key to agricultural productivity. Any input that destroys this living system and undermines soil health basically undermines the agricultural productivity. The maintenance of the fertility of soil is the primary step in any permanent system of agriculture.

Fertile land and sufficient water are vital for sustaining agriculture and livelihoods. Fertility of a soil is defined by its ability to provide all essential nutrients in adequate quantities and in the proper balance for the growth of plants – independent of direct application of nutrients – when other growth factors like light, temperature and water are favorable. This ability does not depend on the nutrient content of the soil only, but on its efficiency in transforming nutrients within the farm’s nutrient circle.

In transformation of nutrients soil organisms play a key role. They break down biomass from crop residues, green manures and mulch and contribute to build up of soil organic matter, including humus, the soil’s most important nutrient reservoir. They also play an essential role in transferring nutrients from the soil organic matter to the mineral stage, which is available to plants. Soil organisms also protect plants from disease and make the soil crumbly.

A fertile soil is easy to work, absorbs rainwater well, and is robust against siltation and erosion. It filters rain water and supplies us with clean drinking water. It neutralizes (buffers) acids, which pass through contaminated air to the soil surface, and decomposes pollutants such as pesticides rapidly. And last but not least a fertile soil is an efficient storage for nutrients and CO₂. In this way a fertile soil prevents the eutrophication of rivers, lakes and oceans and contributes to the reduction of global warming.

In the context of biological agriculture soil fertility is thus primarily the result of biological processes, not of chemical nutrients. A fertile soil is in active exchange with the plants, restructures itself and is capable of regeneration. The biological properties can be observed in the soil’s conversion activity, in the presence and the visible traces of the organisms in it. The communities of microorganisms are robust and active at the right moment. In the self-regulating ecological equilibrium animals, plants and microorganisms all work for each other.

It is the responsibility of farmers to understand soil ecology to the point that they can create or restore the conditions for a robust balance in the soil. If a soil does not regularly bring good yields, farmers should investigate the reasons for it.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China. The diverse agro climatic conditions of India offer an immense scope for production of organic vegetables throughout the year. The increase in area, production and productivity associated with nutrition and health security awareness demands lot of promotion of organic vegetables cultivation in the region since these products sell at the premium prices in the domestic and overseas market (Sandhu and Khera, 2008). It is because the major contribution of vegetables to human health is the large amount of Vitamin C and A as well as folic acid and good number of dietary fibres and minerals (Sanwal, 2008). Apart from this, the phytochemicals in vegetables protect the human body from cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Under organic mode of cultivation one can get an average yield of 25-30 tonnes of good quality potato vegetable crop per hectare (Sachan et al. 2008). It is worthwhile to mention that the potato is a key world food vegetable crop which is produced in 130 nations. It is grown from sea level to 3900 m elevation and its edible dry matter accounts for a higher volume of the food consumed in the world than fish and meat combined together (Sachan et al. 2008). More potatoes are consumed by the world’s population than any other vegetables.

Introduction

Organic farming per se is not a new concept rather is an age old practice of cultivation crops without synthetics. However, in modern usage it is a type of farming without synthetics but at the same time taking advantage of all the modern agriculture technologies like soil testing, nutrient management, ecofriendly pest management, etc. developing and developed world have different incentives for taking up organic farming. Growing health consciousness among the people of developed world is the prime motive behind interest in organic farming. However, conversion of “by default” organic agriculture into “certified organic” is perspective in the developing world so that farmers get price premium. Whatever the case may be, the area under organic farming as well as demand for organic food/product is increasing both in developing as well as in the developed world.

Organic production is a systems approach. Although many aspects of vegetable production remain the same in both “organic” and “non-organic” or “conventional” systems, there are differences. The major components of production which differ between these two systems include transplant production, soil fertility management, and insect, disease, and weed management. “Organic” usually refers to a crop management system that promotes biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. Organic production concentrates on natural processes and how to manage them. Other materials and products are additions to, not replacements for, management. An organic system takes time to develop. It may be achieved in stages, for example by starting with organic soil amendments and other soil improving procedures. Then, try biological control of pests, some companion plants, etc. Eventually, the entire system will be changed. It will take years to convert to a healthy organic system.

Introduction

During the past 60 years, conventional agriculture has become increasingly dependent upon petroleum-based. Chcmically-synthesized fertilizers and pesticides for crop protection and to supply plant nutrients. Certainly, these energy intensive technologies have contributed greatly to this Nation’s agricultural productivity. However, sharply escalating production costs associated with the increasing cost and uncertain availability of energy i.e., fuel and fertilizers, have generated considerable interest in less expensive and more environmentally compatible production alternatives such as organic farming (USDA, 1980). The apparent decline in soil productivity throughout the world from excessive soil erosion, nutrient runoff and loss of soil organic matter; the impairment of environmental quality from sedimentation and pollution of natural waters by agricultural chemicals and the potential hazards to human and animal health and food safety from heavy use of pesticides, have also stimulated interest in organic farming systems of food production.

Use of organic wastes and residues in agriculture

Most countries have traditionally utilized various kinds of organic materials to maintain or improve the fertility, and productivity of their agricultural soils. However, several decades ago organic recycling practices were largely replaced with chemical fertilizers which were applied to high yielding cereal grains that responded best to a high level of fertility and adequate moisture, including irrigation. Soil cultivation was also intensified to improve weed control and seedbed conditions. Consequently, the importance of organic matter to crop production received less emphasis, and its proper use in soil management was neglected, or even forgotten. As a result of this and failure to implement effective soil conservation practices, the agricultural soils in a number of developed and developing countries have undergone serious degradation and decline in productivity.

The soil microorganisms thrive on organic matter in soil by feeding readily on soluble substrates and rather slowly on insoluble substrates. Organisms derive carbon and energy during the process of organic matter decomposition and release organically-bound carbon, thereby decrease C :N ratio and utilize nutrients. Any decrease in organic matter content in soil is likely to affect the microbial biomass and their activities thereby influence the soil fertility and productivity. It is, therefore, imperative to recycle the organic matter in soil in whatsoever form it may be. The raw organic matter requires appropriate treatment to boost decomposition process.

Solid wastes, which are left after the fermentation process is complete, may be potential sources for use as fertilizers and feed stuffs.

I. Antibiotic Fermentation Wastes

Antibiotics are produced by microoganisms and have capacity, in dilute solution, to inhibit the growth or even destroy the other microorganisms. They are produced on a large scale using fermentation process except chloroamphenicol which has been produced synthetically since 1948. Solid wastes remaining after the liquid containing the antibiotic has been extracted from the fermentation broth need to utilised. This is usually done by filtration. The solids are a heterogeneous mixture of hyphae of the producing organism, unused media, defoaming oils and metabolic products of the micro-organisms, the most important of which is residual antibiotic. The levels of residual antibiotic can vary a great deal.

Sustainable horticulture seeks to produce nutritious and economically valuable crops while conserving soil, water, biodiversity, and other natural resources. This chapter examines organic, natural, and broader sustainable production systems and their underlying principles. Topics include organic inputs, compost, biofertilizers, biological pest management, crop diversification, mulching, recycling, soil-health improvement, and reduced dependence on synthetic inputs. Certification systems and market requirements are also considered, including Indian and international organic standards. The chapter distinguishes different production philosophies while emphasizing practical sustainability. Successful systems must maintain productivity, profitability, environmental quality, and consumer confidence. Sustainable horticulture therefore combines ecological principles with sound crop management, market awareness, and responsible resource use

Indian agriculture has grown over past 50 years from subsistence type of farming to a market surplus one with the present food grain production above 250 million tones (Fig. 1) which was only 50 million tones in 1950. At the same time the country has struggled over the years to meet the fertilizer requirement. More than 50 per cent fertilizer consumption is imported.

Exhibition

An exhibition is a public display of works of art, artifacts, products, or other items of interest. Exhibitions are typically organized in galleries, museums, trade shows, or public spaces and can be focused on a single theme or a wide range of subjects. They aim to inform, educate, and engage the audience, offering an opportunity for visitors to experience and interact with the displayed items.

Audio Visual Aids

Audio visual (AV) aids are tools that use both sound and visual components to enhance the communication of information. Examples include videos, slideshows, interactive displays, projectors, speakers, and digital screens. These aids are used in various settings, such as classrooms, corporate presentations, and exhibitions, to make the content more engaging and easier to understand.

Integration of AV Aids in Exhibitions

Integrating AV aids in exhibitions involves incorporating technologies like projectors, speakers, touchscreens, and interactive kiosks to enhance the visitor experience. This integration can bring static displays to life, provide deeper insights into exhibits, and create an immersive environment. Proper integration requires careful planning to ensure that the AV aids complement the exhibits and do not overshadow them.

Microbiology is a branch of science dealing with the study of organisms which are too small to be seen clearly by unaided eye. Roughly the organisms with a diameter of 0.1mm or less, which can not be seen by the human eyes unaided, come under the domain of microorganisms.

Thus, the laboratory work dealing with the microorganisms needs special care to avoid infection and infusion for maintaining good health. In fact all microorganisms should be treated as potential pathogens. Thus, for working with microorganisms aseptic techniques must be followed by students as well as by the laboratory assistants and teachers.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Abstract

Stress can be due to both positive as well as negative experiences, which also forms a necessary part of our daily lives. If we consider an evolutionary standpoint stress was necessary for survival (i.e., imagine hunting large prey on which one’s entire tribe is dependent) and in our modern lives also stress is important as it motivates us for the fulfillment of tasks and changes. Pressure is felt from the environment during transition period ( like at the time of high school graduation) and in preparation for some events (like job interview). Although stress can be a motivation tool, too much stress or inability to cope up with stress can have an adverse effect on the health of an  individual. This chapter represents the study on stressors, various sources of stress, outcomes of stress, and various strategies which will help an individual to cope up with stress. The study is supported by case studies which helps in understanding the chapter more clearly.

Introduction Organizational structure and management represent fundamental dimensions of community mobilization that determine how collective efforts are organized, coordinated, and sustained over time while building institutional capacity for effective action and long-term development success. The design and implementation of appropriate organizational arrangements significantly influence the ability of community groups and development organizations to achieve their goals while maintaining community ownership, democratic participation, and adaptive capacity that can respond to changing circumstances and emerging opportunities. The complexity of contemporary community challenges requires sophisticated organizational approaches that can coordinate diverse activities and stakeholders while maintaining flexibility and responsiveness to local conditions and community preferences. Effective

BNHS is one of the oldest scientific organizations in India, working for nature conservation since 1883. Our primary goal is to spread awareness about nature through science-based research, conservation advocacy, education, scientific publications, nature tours, and other programs. 

Demonstrations
Demonstration means showing by doing. The basic principle of Demonstration is learning by seeing and doing. The concept of demonstration was given by Dr. Seeman A. Knapp. Farmers like to see how a new idea works, both purposes can be achieved by means of a farm demonstration. A good, practical demonstration is an invaluable method in extension work. The demonstration is a particularly powerful method to use with farmers who do not read easily. There are two principal types of demonstration used by extension agents - method demonstration and result demonstration.

This practical assignment is focused on various methodologies and techniques in organizing group discussion and method demonstration. After completion of this assignment, student will be competent enough to organize group discussions and conduct method demonstration in the village.

PURPOSE

To acquaint students to solve the problem through discussion.

To evaluate information, ideas to solve the problem and understand the problem towards development of a programme of action relative to the problem.

Organization means a system with parts which work together, or system with parts dependent upon each other. According to Louis Allen, organization is a process of identifying and grouping the works to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.

There is a difference between the words "Organizing" and "organization". Organizing refers to i) the identification and classification of required activities, ii) the grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives, iii) the assignment of each grouping to a manager with the authority (delegation) necessary to sepervise it, and iv) the provision for co-ordination, horizontally and vertically, in the oganization structure.

Organization implies a formalized intentional structure of roles or positions. The "intentional structure of roles" would refer to the roles people are asked to fill should be intentionally designed to ensure that required activities are done and that activities fit together so that people can work smoothly, effectively and efficiently in groups.

Summary

The indiscriminate use of pesticides and their persistence in the environment enhances the residue levels in meat, dairy products, eggs and food crops, consequently adversely affecting the human health (Akhtar, 1985). In India millions of tons of pesticides are applied to the agricultural fields to increase the productivity for compensation of the nutritional requirements of increasing population from the same land resources. It was the advent of green revolution that really spurred the growth of pesticide industry. Several reports published reveal that a large amount of organochlorine pesticides is present in vegetables, fruits and soft drinks besides other pesticides compared to World Health Organization (WHO) standards (Martin and Duggan, 1968; Corneliussen, 1969; Ulmann, 1972; Hildebrandt et al., 1986). Organochlorine pesticide persistence, biomagnification and toxicity adversely affect the ecological systems (Khanna et al., 2002). There are a large number of different types of pesticides which differ in their mechanisms of action. Some pesticides are very acutely toxic in humans, while others have low acute toxicity but may cause long term health effects in chronically exposed individuals. Each pesticide class has to be considered individually when predicting effects. Therefore, considering organochlorine pesticides induced disruption of body functions and possibly the involvement of free radicals is cardinal to present study.

Organon

Organon of Medicine, a document of Homeopathic philosophy articulated by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, is the corner stone of Homeopathic principles and practices being followed by homeopaths throughout world. Before Organon of Medicine Dr. Hahnemann published an article “Essay on a New Principle” in 1796. The article was based on his first experience of the effect of Peruvian Bark Cinchona in 1790. The Organon of Medicine developed slowly out of Hahnemann’s research and experimentation over a period of time and newer experiences were added in subsequent editions. With more personal observations and experimentation, he published his new account of Homeopathy in 1810 in the form of a book entitled “Organon of Rational Art of Healing (Organon der rationellen Heilkunde). It was the 1st edition. Dr. Hahnemann laid out the doctrine of his ideas of Homeopathy in this book. The book contains the principles and philosophical back ground of the Practice of Homeopathy. The work was repeatedly revised by him and published in six editions, with the name changed from the second edition onwards to Organon of Medicine (Organon der Heilkunst). The book saw its five editions in the life time of Hahnemann and the 6th edition was published long after the death of Dr. Hahnemann. The 2nd edition was published in 1819, with the revised title Organon of Healing Art. The 3rd edition of the book came in 1824. The 4th edition was published in 1829 and introduced Hahnemann’s “Theory of Chronic Diseases”. The 5th edition of the book was published in 1833, that contained the doctrine of vital force and drug-dynamization. The sixth edition, written in 1842, a year before his death, was retitled Organon of Medicine and published in 1921 (78 years after his death in 1843).

The brain, (Figure 2-7 A) a command centre of the body, is a complex organ. The substance of the brain is made of the grey matter and the white matter. The grey matter is often identified as cerebral cortex but other parts of the brain also contain the grey matter. Inside the brain, the grey matter is organized into large accumulations of neurons which are called the nuclei of the brain. Each nucleus is associated with a specific function. In addition to neurons, there is other type of cells the glial cells called neuroglia. The neurons are responsible for sending and receiving impulses or signals. The glial cells are nonneuronal and provide support and nutrition to neuronal cells, form myelin and facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system. The white matter is made of millions of nerve fibres that are coming from neurons and are going to establish communications with different parts of the brain and spinal cord. Since these nerve fibres are coated with myelin sheath around them these appear white and the area occupied by these nerve fibres become the white matter of the brain. The brain has three basic components, the forebrain, midbrain and the hindbrain.

Fore brain: The forebrain (Prosencephalon) is the rostral portion of the brain. It consists of cerebrum (Telencephalon) and the thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland together constituting the interbrain (Diencephalon).

Mid brain: The midbrain (Mesencephalon) is the middle portion of the brain. It is in the centre lying between the interbrain and hindbrain. It consists of a cranial part of brain stem.

Hind brain: The hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) is the caudal most portion of the brain. It consists of remaining (caudal) part of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata (Myelencephalon) and the cerebellum and pons (Metencephalon).

Mouth

The mouth is bounded dorsally (roof) by hard palate (2-5 B) and behind that the soft palate, ventrally (floor) by the body of the mandible along with the mylohyoide muscles and laterally by the cheeks (Fig. 2-5 C). The entrance of mouth cavity is bounded by lips and it is called as rima oris, while its caudal opening into the pharynx is called as aditus pharyngis or isthmus faucium. The cavity of the mouth (cavum oris) is subdivided into two parts by the teeth and alveolar processes (the alveoli) of the mandible. The inner part i.e. the space within the teeth and alveoli is termed as mouth cavity proper, while the space between the cheeks and lips and that between the teeth and alveoli is called the vestibule of the mouth. The mucous membrane of the mouth cavity is continuous with the margin of the lips and the common integument and caudally it continues with the mucous membrane of the pharynx.

The sense organs are the organs of the body that respond to external stimuli by conveying impulses to the nervous system. The sense organs allow animals to sense changes in the environment around them and in their bodies so that they can respond properly. Animals can sense a wide range of stimuli that include the sense of vision, the sense of hearing, the sense of olfaction (smell), the sense of taste and the sense of touch including pain and pressure. In animals, there are two major groups of senses, the general senses and the special senses.

Nose

The nose is the externally visible part of the respiratory system. It forms the part of the face of the animal extending from the transverse level of eyes to the rostral end of the head. Exteriorly it is formed by the bones, muscles, cartilages and the skin. Internally it encloses the nasal cavity which is lined by the mucous membrane. The dorsal part of the nose (roof of the nasal cavity) is termed as dorsum nasi. It is formed by the nasal and frontal bones of the skull. The lateral parts are formed by the incisive, maxillary, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. Covering these bones externally is a muscular layer formed by the facial muscles running over these bones and acting on the upper lip and nostrils. The muscular layer is externally covered by the skin. The skin on the nose bears fine hairs except at the tip of the nose that is formed by the nostrils. The rostral end of the nose is formed by nostrils which provide entrance to the nasal cavity. The nostrils are supported by cartilages which are the dorsal and ventral extensions of the cartilage of the nasal septum. The main aim of the nose is to support and protect the nasal cavity.

Knowledge of male reproductive system and its physiological functions is essential for understanding male reproductive behavior and for effective reproductive management of breeding bulls. Therefore, personnel involved in management of breeding bulls, semen collection, handling and artificial insemination must have sound knowledge of male reproductive anatomy and physiology of breeding bulls. This section provides a recapitulation of the basic physiology and anatomy of male genitalia.
 

Functions of Male Genital System

    (a)    Primary function of the male genital system is to monitor reproduction by providing cutaneous and glandular system of male gonads

    (b)    Secondary function of male genital organs is to provide glandular, ductular, copulatory and auxillary system associated with male reproduction.

Cucumis melo var. conomon or Oriental pickled melon is a veining annual vegetable native to China and India. In the summer, it produces yellow blooms, and in the fall, it harvests the fruit. The petals are crumpled because it belongs to the Cucumis genus.

Botany and taxonomy: The fruit’s outer surface is glossy and can be white or green, but it’s known as shiro-uri because when fully ripe, it turns white and is whiter than a cucumber. It’s a melon variety, but it’s used in cooking since it has a lighter sweetness and flavour, as well as a crisp texture when chewed. It contains vitamin C, vitamin B1, and carotene, however the majority of its constituents are water and low in calories.

Location and Layout
• As the laboratory will be handling materials hazardous to human and animal health, it must be isolated as much as possible from livestock yards, poultry farms and quarantine stations and should not function in or near establishments handling healthy animals, food products for human or animal consumption or near vaccine production laboratories.
• Animal houses, garages, workshops, stores, water tanks, residential accommodation, administrative blocks have to be constructed as per the need of ideal microbiological laboratory. Expansion possibilities should
also be kept in mind. The building can be arranged in 5 main groups:
• Administrative / laboratory rooms
• Decontamination and disposal area
• Animal house facilities
• Workshops / stores/garages and
• Residential accommodation for the staff, hospital, schools, playgrounds, parks, shops etc. • The laboratory building may be rectangular in blocks, arranged in L, T or U shapes and may be of one or several stories. The temperature, wind velocity, rainfall,