eChapters

The genus Hydrangea is the best-known member of family Hydrangeaceae tribe Hydrangeae from the Asterid order Cornales. With more than two centuries of horticultural trade, Hydrangea cultivars are among the most popular ornamental shrubs worldwide (McClintock, 1957 and Kardos et al., 2009). Hydrangea (Hortensia) is a very popular ornamental plant for gardens. Hydrangeas occur most often on partly shaded but open slopes, rock edges, cliffs, roadside banks, edges of woods, or in moist open woods. Usually, restricted to the more moist, protected slopes. Recently it is commercialized for the production of cut flowers (Sacco et al., 2012). In India is widely grown in hilly areas.

10.1 Introduction

The IPCC predicts the global average surface temperature to increase by 1.4 – 5.8 ^oC by 2100 with the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration from 540-970 ppm over the same period. The atmospheric CO₂ concentration and temperature, both, showing a steep rise since last three decades and their impacts experienced across all sectors of agriculture. Serious concerns have been raised about the effects of global environmental change on community and ecosystem functioning. Climate change scenarios generated from General Circulation Models (GCM) with a doubling of atmospheric CO₂ predicted various extreme weather events viz., warming temperatures, increase in anti-cyclonic behaviour during the summer which may result in 20% increase in the precipitation, and long periods of drought between rain bearing storms.

The prime object of plant breeder is to develop high yielding variety with superior characteristics. Selection is based on the phenotypes of the plants. Consequently the effectiveness of selection primarily depends on the degree to which the phenotype of plants reflects their genotype. These are all self fertilizing species. In these species development of seed take place by self fertilization. Hence self pollinated species are also known as autogamous species. Various plant characters such as homogamy, cleistogamy, chasmogamy, bisexuality etc. promotes self pollination. The self pollinated crops with their description are given in Table 9.1. The breeding methods used in self and often-self pollinated crops are discussed below:

Plant Introduction

Plant introduction consists of taking a genotype or a group of genotypes of plants into a new area or region or environment, where they have not being grown earlier. It is very simplest and fastest method of developing new variety. It is of two types:

GPS stands for Global Positioning System, basically Navstar GPS is a radio based space aviation system developed by United state government which was operated by United State Air Force. It provides geographic location and time related information to GPS receivers under global navigation satellite from anywhere of earth where unobstructed line of sight to 4 or more GPS satellite co-ordinate (Anonymous, 2018). Even GPS not required any user for transmitting data, with working independently on any telephonic or internet receivers; through these technologies we can enhance usefulness of the GPS location based information. The GPS serves as critical positioning capacity to various fields like army operation, civil aviation, and commercial scope to wider scope in around world.

Introduction and Scope of Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the field of study that focuses on studying chemical reactions occurring within living organisms. It is a specialized branch that combines the principles of both chemistry and biology. In order to comprehend the molecular mechanisms behind every biological event, this multidisciplinary f ield incorporates elements of biology, chemistry, and physiology. The scope of biochemistry extends from the study of small molecules and their interactions within cells to the analysis of complex metabolic pathways, enzyme kinetics, and the structure and function of biomolecules.

One of the main goals of biochemistry is to elucidate the chemical reactions that take place in living systems and understand how they regulate key biological processes. Biochemists investigate the structure, function, and properties of various biomolecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. It helps us to study how these biomolecules interact and contribute to the overall functioning of cells, tissues, and organisms.

Biochemistry also plays a vital role in various areas of research and practical applications. For instance, in medical biochemistry, scientists study the molecular basis of diseases to develop diagnostic tests and therapeutic interventions. They investigate the biochemical mechanisms underlying genetic disorders, cancer, metabolic, and infectious diseases. Thus, understanding the biochemical basis of diseases can lead to the development of targeted and personalized treatments.

Introduction
Integrating information technology (IT) into governance and development frameworks has revolutionized how governments engage with citizens, driving empowerment across multiple dimensions. People-centric IT solutions focus on bridging the digital divide, promoting inclusivity, enhancing accessibility, and enabling active participation in governance and economic activities. These solutions leverage mobile technology, artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and blockchain to create inclusive, transparent, and user-friendly platforms, ensuring equitable access to opportunities and resources.
Bridging the Digital Divide: One of the primary challenges in empowering people through IT is addressing the digital divide the gap between individuals with access to digital technologies and those without. In many developing nations, including India, large sections of the population remain excluded from the benefits of digital transformation due to socioeconomic, geographic, or infrastructural constraints.

Business efficiency refers to the ability of an organization to use its resources— such as time, money, labor, technology, and materials—in the most effective way to achieve maximum output with minimum waste. In simple terms, business efficiency means doing work in the best possible way with the least amount of effort, cost, and time while maintaining high quality. Efficiency is not only about working faster; it is about working smarter. A business is considered efficient when it produces more results with fewer resources. For example, if a company can produce 100 products in 5 hours instead of 8 hours by using better machines or automation, then the company has improved its efficiency.

ABSTRACT
Recent challenges for fossil fuels, associated environmental issues with disposal of organic garbage, and the rising costs for energy has encouraged researchers to search for alternate energy sources. Massive uncontrolled biogas from landfills, sludge and organic material degradation under anoxic conditions is an environmental management issue. Methane emission to atmosphere has a tremendous green house effect, but this can also be a valuable renewable energy resource. Biogas from kitchen wastes through anaerobic digestion by methanogens is such an alternate technology. Kitchen wastes are considered one of the best raw materials for biogasification. Biogas is mainly composed of 50-74% methane (CH₄), 25-28% carbon-di-oxide (CO₂), other volatile compounds including hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), water vapour and other trace gas compounds. The impurities in it, like Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) which is corrosive, downgrade its quality. Purified biogas of higher calorific value attracts attention as a substitute fuel for additional applications. Its purification using various suitable scalable and economically-viable scrubbing technologies to enhance its quality and performance as an alternate fuel is an important step in this direction. Thus, a technology to generate and purify biogas from kitchen waste has significant prospects in the energy sector, and also as a promising enterprise to employ the youth.

Solution:

Steps used for plotting the bar graph are as:

Step 1: Open Excel sheet and feed the above data as given in figure. 9.1.

Step 2: Select data and go to insert menu and select column chart. (figure 9.2)

Step 3: Select 2-D column, option first from dialog Box (figure 9.3).

Step 4: The desired output will be as shown (figure 9.4).

Remark The data labels, axis name, title of the graph etc. can be inserted through selecting option formatting chart area and add data labels by right clicking on the graph output (figure 9.5).

Introduction

"Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new and reliable knowledge." It is a systematic and orderly (following a series of steps). Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable. Thus research is:

1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and causes

• What, how and why things occur
• Are there interactions?

2. A process

• Planned and managed - to make the information generated credible
• The process is creative
• It is circular - always leads to more questions

This chapter introduces the essential components of laboratory work that form the foundation for veterinary parasitology and molecular biology research. A well-equipped laboratory along with proper safety protocols and correctly prepared reagents, is the key to reliable experimental outcomes and a secure working environment.
The following sections describe the standard operating procedures and laboratory biosafety, standard equipment used in research work, and the fundamental principles of solution preparation. These basic laboratory skills are essential prerequisites for the specialised techniques covered in subsequent chapters on veterinary parasitology, molecular biology and bioinformatics. Understanding and applying these foundational concepts allows researchers to maintain experimental consistency, ensure reproducible results, and conduct investigations safely and efficiently. The methods and principles outlined here will be regularly applied throughout the various techniques detailed in this manual, serving as essential knowledge for all laboratory personnel as well short-term visitors.
1.1 Laboratory Standard Operating Procedures and Safety
Laboratory safety is fundamental to protecting personnel, maintaining sample integrity, and ensuring reliable experimental outcomes. This section outlines essential laboratory conduct, safety protocols for personnel and equipment, waste management, and emergency protocols for standard laboratories carrying out diagnostics as well as research.

INTRODUCTION

Now-a-days, food products with maximum health benefits and ease in preparation are gaining popularity globally, the reason being changing awareness level about food and dietary habits. Since ages, a number of methods like cooking, baking, drying etc. have been used to thermally process the food materials. Electrical sources of electromagnetic waves are very promising because of advances in nuclear and hydroelectric power as well as ongoing cost rises in traditional forms of fuel, of which there are only restricted reserves. The heating aids include use of wooden fuel, gaseous fuel, electric energy etc.; but the new era of electromagnetic rays had introduced new horizons of food processing by utilizing it in various unit operations (Sakai and Hanzawa 1994). Though, these radiations are gaining popularity in various walks of life; their destructive impact is much dominating. Hence, one should handle these radiations with utmost care as well as comprehensive understanding of the know-how and control over the process.

Agriculture encounters a complex dynamic system of natural conditions. The meteorological factors among these natural conditions play a pivotal role so far as agriculture is concerned. The rate of growth and development of a bio-system is largely depending upon its ambient temperature and moisture. The plant productivity per unit area, total production, quality of the produce, operational efficiency as well as econometrics are solely governed by the meteorological parameters. Therefore, their through understanding including the computation and the measurement techniques is absolutely essential. It is no less important to have sufficient workable information on weather phenomena as well as climatic resources to determine realizable potential and an appropriate solution for a number of problems faced in agriculture.

The history of the pregnancy test is a meaningful history embedded in magic, myth, politics, and science. From ancient Egyptian to modern times, the pregnancy test holds a cultural omnipresence that forces women to confront their fertility, femininity, and their future. Today we know that a pregnancy test that detects the human hormone known as human chorionic gonadatropin (hCG) offers the quickest and most accurate result for determining pregnancy. HCG is secreted by the placenta after the fertilized egg implants in the uterus and can be detected in both urine and blood. Urine pregnancy tests are convenient for home use, but a doctor may also opt to test blood as it provides a quantitative hCG number. Both methods are highly accurate and common. Pregnancy tests, however, were not always so accurate or so culturally accepted.
 
The diagnosis of pregnancy requires a multifaceted approach using three main diagnostic tools. These are (a) history and physical examination, (b)laboratory evaluation, and (c) ultrasonography. Currently, physicians may use all of these tools to diagnose pregnancy at early gestation and to help rule out other pathologies.

ABSTRACT

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench. is a medicinal and nutraceutically important herb of American origin, extended its distribution to other parts of the globe in subtropical and temperate environment. This species is known for various biological properties such as antimicrobial, immuno-stimulatory and anti-inflammatory properties due to the presence to several bioactive compounds loaded in the form of phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids, lipids, nitrogenous compounds, carbohydrates and others such as ascorbic acid, sitosterol, linoleic acid, cyanidin glycosides and sesquiterpene esters in different quantities. Published data reveals that its major chemical constituents possess anti-anxiety, anti-depression, cytotoxicity, anti-infective and anti-mutagenicity properties. Besides, plants respond to abiotic and climatic signals that are responsible for various adaptive responses at the cellular level and vary with ecosystem in which the species grows. It may behave differently in different ecological climates, thereby, modifying their gene expressions, and this reveals that the plant growth and the adaptability are mainly affected by microclimatic factors. Experimental trials conducted to collect data on growth phenology in relation to crop-weather interaction and investigated result is presented in this research. Studies on chemical evaluation of E. purpurea under two constrasting environment, subtropical and temperate climate, with reference to cichoric acid and chlorogenic acid undertaken for this plant is also presented. Future studies in relation to the application of biotechnological interventions and chemical evaluation at different time scale would be a great contribution to the science for this species as it has the tremendous potentials which may lead to development of various nutraceuticals and value added products in future for human health and medicines.

Overpopulation in humans and street dogs to some extent is a global problem of significant magnitude, with grave implications for the future. The overpopulation of dogs and cats is becoming an increasing concern in most countries of the world. As the global human population explodes so to do the staggering numbers of many best friends. Not only does this overpopulation cause millions of deaths each year and immeasurable levels of suffering in unwanted animals, these animals can cause significant risks to human health.

Stray animals particularly dogs are source of dreaded diseases like rabies and other zoonoses, resulting in thousands of deaths annually. The management of wild and domestic animal population is step towards controlling the situation and fertility control techniques play a role in this. However, such technology is still in its infancy is yet to be used on a large scale.

Advancements made in immunology and improved methods for the isolation of antigens specific reproductive system have paved the way for the development of antifertility vaccines in the past two decades. These vaccines are generally based on their ability block an indispensable step in the reproductive process.

Introduction

In agriculture and public health sectors, a variety of pesticides are still in uses that are toxic chemicals and having broad-spectrum actions. They kill target species but also harm the ecosystem seriously by affecting desirable organisms, thus, badly impairing prey-predator relationship. Most of these pesticides are persistent or non-biodegradable and hence exhibit biological magnification by accumulating at higher concentration in the organism, which are on the top of the food chain. The other drawbacks of repeated use of pesticides are eradication of natural enemies of pests, increased level of pesticide residues in soil, water, food and fodder crops, resistance of pests to pesticides and resurgence of minor pests in addition to the environmental pollution. It is clear that once used pesticide may persist, somewhere causing serious harm to the mankind and his ecosystem.

The increasing incidence of pesticide harms is fueling the need for new pesticides, which are toxicologically safe, more selective and efficacious and environment-friendly. Now the natural compounds, thus, have increasingly become the focus of those interested in discovery of pesticides. Tens of thousands of secondary products of plants have been identified and there are estimates that hundreds of thousands of these compounds exist. There is growing evidence that most of these compounds are involved in the interaction of plants with other species-primarily the defense of the plants from plant pests. Thus, these secondary compounds represent a large reservoir of chemical structures with biological activity. This resource is largely untapped for use as pest management agents^3, 4. The extraction of such chemicals from plants and derivatives of potent compounds are being encouraged all over the world under the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approaches. The natural compounds and their synthetic derivatives are more selective in action, completely biodegradable and environment-friendly. In short, natural ways of pests control have already been established and are receiving much attention these days.

Introduction
The major non-mulberry silkworms include the following

1.    Tasar silkworm Tasar silkworm is wild. Larva of tasar silkworm spins a ring like structure around the twig and a long peduncle before constructing the cocoon. Cocoons are large, thick and pedunculate. Cocoons are referred as ‘Hens’s eggs’. They are made of a single unbroken filament and hence are reelable. Tasar silkworm is bi/ tri/ tetra/ pentavoltine. This silk is brown colored silk. Monia or Mauni vessel, a palm leaved vessel is used to rear tasar silkworm in olden days.

a)    Indian Tropical Tasar, Antheraea mylitta (Saturniidae: Lepidoptera) This silkworm commonly found in tropical India. It is polyphagous and feeds on a number of food plants. Its principal host plants are asan (Terminalia tomentosa), arjun (T.arjuna) and Sal (Shorea robusta). Secondarily it feeds on Ber (Zizyphus sp.) The cocoons are grey white, tough and pedunculate.

Turf is an English word, which traces its origin to India from the Sanskrit word “Darbha” means “tuft of grass” or “Kusha” in hindi. Kusha has been mentioned numerous ties even in Hind mythologies (Turgeon, 1985). Turf, is a grass which is smooth, has quality texture and a soothing colour surface that is used in the golf courses, lawns, fields, nurseries, gardens, etc. Turf is a piece of earth of about 5 cm thickness with grass thickly grown over it. Turfgrass has become increasingly important in today’s society as people’s needs increase for recreation, comfort and aesthetics. Turfgrasses are considered as major component of landscape industry which provides aesthetic value. They provide arena for various functional, recreational and social activities.

Turfgrasses enhance the appearance of land and increase the utility of sports fields, lawns, parks, golf courses and other greenbelt areas in and around urban as well as sub urban centres. They improve the environment of urban centres by reducing erosion, temperatures, noise, dust and glare. And, turfgrasses improve the safety of sports fields and playgrounds by adding resiliency to the playing surface. Turfgrasses are increasingly being used by National Highway Authority of India for reducing dust pollution and decreasing vehicle glare by planting on central verge and sides. Only turfgrasses are used by airport authorities for planting besides runway. The grasses being of perennial nature also help in carbon sequestration thus helping combat climate change. The grasses which grow well on sandy soil will help to reduce the dust and control erosion and dust pollution on river banks.

The turfgrass industry is growing rapidly due to strong demand for residential and commercial property development, rising affluence, and the environmental and aesthetic benefits of turfgrass in the urban landscape. Increased area under aesthetic and utility turfs is mainly because of increasing awareness about the sports, degrading environment and the increase in real estate value. The economic value of the turfgrass industry in India is yet to be determined as there is no single government agency handling or collecting the authentic data on turfgrass cover, use or import. All the agencies dealing with turfgrasses are either private companies, nurseries or corporates. But, according to the scarce data gathered by golf associations, sports experts and Association of Indian Nurserymen, turfgrass industry covers an area of more than 30000 acres, in which around 6000 acre is under turfgrass cultivation (sod production). States leading in turfgrass cultivation and marketing are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, etc. The total number of international cricket grounds in India are 50 and 8 are under construction, more than 520 domestic cricket grounds and athletic fields are also in operation. Indian turfgrass industry is growing around 10 per cent annually. Landscape business contributes 2-3 per cent of total construction and turf has 50 per cent of landscape business.