eChapters

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Agriculture, as one of the most important economic sectors in Jordan, is under increasing pressure due to rising population, consumer affluence, pressure from globalization and a shrinking resource base. Previous production challenges in Jordan have been met largely through improvements in traditional agricultural inputs such as seeds and agrochemicals, but the present challenges need different solutions. Better management, which involves higher degrees of information and knowledge, is widely seen as a way to address these challenges. The potentials that ICT has to offer range from the sharing and re-use of data, research findings, lessons learned and best practices among R&D institutions to developing quick response mechanisms for agricultural and natural resources crises situations; from permitting informed decision making among the agricultural officials to sounder policy making among the legislators; from improving the extension delivery systems in the rural areas to bringing e-Commerce to the farmers.

Agricultural extension is about the application of information into knowledge and adoption, such as application of scientific research to agricultural practices through farmer training. ICT broadly defined as facilitation by electronic means the creation, storage, management and dissemination of information. Two types of ICT – old and new are practiced in extension service; the former refers to radio and TV which are low cost and require little skill to use while the latter forms of ICT include networked computers, satellite-sourced communication, wireless technology and the internet. Assume key factors explaining different ICT taken up by country are: per capita income; levels of education; the rural concentration; and dispersal of a country’s population.

The development of ICT in Jordan is fast and the Jordan’s IT capacity related to agro-information dissemination needs to be vastly improved at the local level to allow the effective horizontal transmission of information and communication between the farmers and institutions. However, technological challenges have still to be addressed such as the lack of trained communicators, poor ICT infrastructures high costs and limited access to ICTs and lack of relevant content.

Microscope is an instrument to magnify and enable to see the microorganisms by us.

Microscopes are of two types. Light and Electron microscope.

Basic Principles of light microscope

The light is the primary source on which magnification is performed. The magnification is obtained by a system of optical lenses using light waves. These light microscopes can be further classified into

Abstract

The landslide vulnerability of the state of Mizoram is already high due to lithology, structure, geomorphology and seismotectonics and also the rainfall, like the other states of the northeastern region of India. The extensive mining activities along the highways for the building and road materials appear to cause additional problems of landslides. So two prominent landslides occurring in Keifang and Tlungvel quarries,Mizoram were studied. Besides taking stock of the geosystems, boreholes were drilled in both slides and from the total depth drilled and the modified core recovery, the RQD were worked out for the rocks which indicates that geotechnically the rocks of Keifang quarry are weak when compared to Tlungvel quarry. The geophysical surveys too lead to similar inferences. On the basis of the studies a set of mitigation strategies have been suggested.

9.1 Introduction

Food quality and safety are central issues in food economics today. A number of developed countries (EU, UK, US) has imposed a number of new regulations to track food products across the supply chain which is forcing the companies to invest in new automated approaches for their implementations. These solutions facilitate better process efficiency with more productivity, quality control in production lines, lower manufacturing costs with higher profit margins, and also help to achieve improved presentation as customers request. The high labour costs in developed countries make cost-cutting inevitable to remain competitive production. The growth in products packaged for the market, the increasingly strict hygiene regulations, the need to reduce risks at work, cut costs, and control product quality are all calling for the development of technologies that enable robots to be used for these tasks. In fact, robotics has a great opportunity in this industry. But the variation in physical properties of various food products and the necessity to avoid damaging them, make it necessary to seek flexible handling solutions for a wide range of products.

The robotics industry is looking into a bright future. As per the report given by the Statistical Department of International Federation of Robotics (IFR), it was projected that between 2014 and 2016 worldwide robot sales will increase by about 6% on average per year. Ten years ago, global sales figures were hovering around 80,000. So, three key factors for the boom - factory modernization, increases in production capacity and rising demand from a number of emerging markets.

Environmental protection Agency (EPA)has established category of pesticides called “Reduced Risk” pesticides to encourage the development, registration and use of products which could result in reduced risks to human health and the environment. New Generation pesticides are considered for “Reduced Risk” status if they have at least one or more of the following status: low risk to human health, low toxicity to non target organisms, low potential to contaminate ground water, surface water or other valued environmental resources and have the potential to expand the adoption and effectiveness of IPM.

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

ABSTRACT

The totipotency of triploid endosperm tissue is exploited in many vegetatively propagated crops. Hevea brasiliensis, the most important commercial source of natural rubber, is a highly heterozygous perennial tree with a long breeding cycle. Conventional method of triploid production by crossing a diploid with an artificially induced tetraploid is a lengthy and laborious process. Hence in vitro regeneration of plants from endosperm tissue provides an easy and direct approach for the production of large number of triploids. Hevea fruits at different developmental stages were collected and sterilized using 0.1% HgCl₂ for 15 minutes. Seeds were dissected out and the embryos and inner integuments were removed. Endosperm is cut into small pieces and cultured over MS medium supplemented with various levels of sucrose, phytagel and growth regulators viz BA, Kin thidiazuron, 2,4-D, IBA, NAA, zeatin & GA. Organic supplements viz. yeast extract, casein hydrolysate, coconut milk and banana powder were used for callus and embryo induction. Optimum callus induction was obtained in media supplemented with 2,4-D (2.0 mg ^-1) and Kinetin (3.0 mg^-1). On further subculture of the primary calli to medium containing zeatin (1.0 mg ^-1), embryogenic calli could be obtained. Embryos were induced in MS medium supplemented with ABA (0.3 mg ^-1) , Kin (0.3 mg ^-1) and GA (0.5 mg ^-1). Maturation, germination and bipolar differentiation of the embryos were achieved in MS medium devoid of growth regulators. Root tips from the germinating embryos were subjected to cytological analysis and found to be triploids (3n=54). Regeneration from Hevea endosperm is being reported for the first time. The results indicates that like many other crops, Hevea endosperm responds well under in vitro conditions and endosperm culture could be utilized as a viable technique for triploid plant production.

The arid region in India is spread over in 38.7 million hectare land. Out of the total 31.7 m hectare lies in hot arid region and remaining 7 m hectare comes under cold arid region. The hot arid region occupies major part of northwestern India (28.7 m ha) and a small pocket (3.13 mha) in southern India. The north western arid region occurs between 22°30’ and 32°05’ N latitude and 68°05’ to 75°45’ E, covering western part of Rajasthan, north western Gujarat and south western parts of Haryana and Punjab. About 62% area of arid region falls in western Rajasthan and 20% in Gujarat. Haryana and Punjab together constitute 7% area of arid region. The state wise distribution of arid region is shown in Table 3.1. Further our discussion is based on the majority area of arid region, belonging to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana.

Crop diversification refers to the addition of new crops or cropping systems to agricultural production on a particular farm taking into account of the different returns from value-added crops with complementary marketing opportunities.

Major driving forces for crop diversification

Crop diversification provides better conditions for food security and enable farmers to grow surplus products for sale at market and thus obtain increased income to meet other needs related to household well being. Crop diversification enable farmers to gain access to national and international market with new products, food and medicinal plants. Diversification from the monoculture of traditional staples are important for nutritional benefits of farmers in developing countries and can support a country to become more self reliant in terms of food production. Diversification also manages price risk and compared to monoculture techniques. For diversification crops generally consists of more sustainable natural resources and again, diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis

Economic Importance

• The disease is present in countries such as India, Jordan, Nepal, Pakistan, Syria, Turkey, Russia, France, Hungary, Ukraine, Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, Canada, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay etc.
• It may cause 5-10% yield losses but sometimes severe damage may result complete crop failure under favorable conditions.

ABSTRACT

A plant grows in a highly competitive environment. It is continually being threatened by other plants encroaching upon the space from which it draws its sustenance, by microorganisms, by insects, avian, reptilian or mammalian herbivores. In order to survive, each plant must draw upon a complex of defenses, which may be physical, such as Spines or Leathery Leaves or Chemical. These defenses are passive, coming into action only when the plant is attacked which repel insects or the herbivores that attempt to feed on them. Plants protect themselves from insect attack by providing a multitude of repellent chemicals including toxic and bitter alkaloids and tannins. Non-specialist insects and other animals that attempt to feed on the plant may be repelled, injured through severe gastrointestinal malfunction or even killed. The cabbage, spinach, mustard etc. are well known for their mustard pungent flavor that deters most animals from consuming it. Even most medicinal plants like Cynanchum collialatum of the family Asclepediaceae have tannins or alkaloids like “cardenolides” that repel most animals and insects. All these plants have a basic enzyme “Myrosinase” which react with these specific tannins to produce the toxic metabolite, which repels insects and animals. But caterpillars of few insects are known to tolerate these toxic alkaloids (ex: caterpillar of Striped Tiger Butterfly-Danaus genutia) and in turn sequester the toxic alkaloids into their tissues making themselves non-palatable to their enemies. We hypothesize the analysis of possible roles of toxic alkaloids isolated from these butterflies as bio-insecticides

Abstract

Mythology is a unique subject of religious or cultural traditions. Plants play a vital role in the practice of these traditions. The use of plants may be an approach towards their conservation by demonstrating their magico-religious importance or their efficiency in keeping away some infectious microbes. Reason may be any, but all such herbs needs scientific interventions with respect to their usage. In this manuscript 69 such plant species are enumerated which are used for magico-religious purposes. Maximum species were recorded from dicots and seeds have shown maximum percentage among the plant parts to be used for the purpose. The knowledge about the magico-religious usage among the inhabitants is communicated through oral, literature or practice. The quantitative indices like Cultural Significance Index and Factor Informant Consensus have been calculated for the collected data from 92 informants in the region. The calculated ethnobotanical quantitative indices indicate Capsicum annuum and Santalum album are the culturally more significant plants and there is a strong homogeneity in the practices among the people of different districts.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Principle

β-Glucosidase (BG) plays a major role in the degradation of soil organic matter and plant residues. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-d-glucopyranosides, the final, rate-limiting step in the degradation of cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide providing simple sugars for the soil microbial population. BG has been shown to be sensitive to changes in soil and residue management as well as an early indicator of changes in SOC before these changes are reflected in total or organic C analyses. The method is based on colorimetric determination of the p-nirtrophenol released by β-glucosidase when soil is incubated with buffered PNG solution and toluene.

The nematode feeding on plant can be divided into above ground feeders and below ground feeders.

I. Above ground feeders

a) Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs

Seed gall nematode : Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud nematode : Aphelenchoides

Stem and buld nematode : Ditylenchus

1. Botanical Name : Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. Turkestanica L. (Fam.)

2. Family : Elaeagnaceae

3. Common Name : Sea buckthorn,Leh berry

4. Name in Indian languages

Amesh, Khatai (Garhwali), Tarbu (Lahaul), Dhurchuk (Hindi), Chook/ Dhurchuk (Kumoani), Tseta lulu (Ladakh), Chharma, Tir guk (Spiti).

5. Description

Sea-buckthorn is a dioecious, usually spinescent deciduous shrub or a small tree of Elaeagnacae family. It grows up to a height of 10 m and found growing in the river beds of the drier ranges of the state at an altitude of 1600-3300 m in Himalayan ranges from Ladakh to Uttarakhand. Leaves are small and linear-lanceolate. Flowers are very small, greenish or yellowish. The fruit is acidic and is made into a jelly with sugar. A syrup is also prepared from it which is used in respiratory complaints. A decoction is used for cutaneous eruptions. The fruit is a rich source of vitamin C, carotene and also contains vitamin B. The leaves and flowers are used for treating arthritis, gastrointestinal ulcers, gout, skin rashes and lowering blood pressure.

Nursery

Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised, propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-to-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Setting up of a fruit nursery is a long term venture and requires careful planning and expertise, because mistakes committed initially cannot be rectified easily and may adversely affect the return from the investment. Thus, one should pay due attention on every aspects when nursery is to be established.

9.7.1. Function

The front axle is the unit on which the front wheel is mounted. This wheel is an idler wheel by which the tractor is steered in various directions. The function is to assist the steering and support the tractor. It is a rigid tubular or I-section steel construction, pivoted at the centre. The pivot pin is housed on bushings on a support bolted to the front of the engine. As the track width of a tractor is adjustable, the front axles have provision to be extended on both sides. The tubular front axles have telescopic arrangement for extension, whereas the I-section type of front axles are three-piece axles.