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India is recovering from the euphoria of the Green Revolution and battling the residual effects of the extensively used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the country’s soils. The decade from 1980 to 1990 alone saw the area under pesticides in India, increased a whopping 20-fold, from six million hectares to 125 million hectares. After a high annual consumption of nearly 75000 MT reached in the early ’90s, interventions in the form of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices have only now started to show a declining trend in the use of pesticides in India. Interestingly, India’s consumption of pesticides per hectare is low (0.288 kg/ha) when compared with world averages—0.5 kg/ha against Korea’s 6.60 kg/ha and Japan’s 12.0 kg/ha. According to the pesticides industry statistics, India spends US $3/ha on pesticides compared with US $24/ha spent by Philippines, US $255/ha spent by South Korea and US $633/ha by Japan. Yet, despite a comparatively low use of pesticides in India, the contamination of food products in the country is alarming. About 20 per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 2 per cent globally. No detectable residues are found in only 49 per cent Indian food products compared to 80 per cent globally. A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. Though often misunderstood to refer only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides and various other substances used to control pests.

Pesticides and their metabolites have received particular attention in the last few years in environmental trace organic analysis because they are regularly detected in food products, surface/ground waters and soil strata throughout the world as consequence of their widespread use for agricultural and nonagricultural purposes. So it is the need of the hour to study the levels of pesticides residues in plants, water and soil and their fate in environment after its degradation.

It would be necessary to work out tolerance limits of pesticides residues in/on crops, soil and water and the efforts, therefore, are directed towards various residue analytical methods like TLC, GLC and HPLC etc. which are suitable for the purpose.

A pesticides residue is any substance or mixture of substances in food, agricultural commodities or animal feed resulting from the use of pesticides and includes any specified derivatives such as degradation products and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological significance.

Pesticide residue analysis (PRA) may be defined as the quantitative and qualitative analyses of the representative samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and their toxic metabolites.

Chemicals in the form of insecticides ,fungicides and herbicides are extensively used in large numbers in agricultural production. Commercial production of some crops would be impossible if chemicals are not used. Small quantities of chemical residues often remain in such crops and the harvested grains and other products. The residues of pesticides  have been observed in small quantities (ppm level) in soil, water, agricultural produce  and even in animal tissues and their products like meat and  milk. They finally reach the consumer, namely, man (and even animals). Even the environment  is  now-a-days polluted with pesticides and other chemicals harmful to the humans. In view of the importance and seriousness of the problem the residues need to be estimated in the food and non-food products to assess their safety. Analytical details of a few pesticide residue procedures are presented below. Specialized texts may be consulted for  more extensive information.

Principle: Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors FPD-P/NPD without cleanup. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

India is an agrarian country where around 70% of the total population is engaged in farming activities. Agriculture and allied sectors are undoubtedly the largest livelihood provider of India, along with significant contribution towards the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. Agricultural production has been raised dramatically in the recent past to feed our burgeoning population with the help of modern inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, mechanical devices for tilling, seeding and irrigating the crops. With the advancement of agro-inputs, incidence of various kinds of pests also increases that hugely threaten our food security.

Crops are grown with the use of plant protection chemicals to boost production, enhance quality, and lengthen shelf life. Wherein the enormous use of pesticides which are having the longer half life period led to leave the residues in the different bodies of the ecosystem. Pesticide residues refer to the residual presence of pesticide active ingredients, their metabolites, or breakdown products in various environmental components subsequent to their application, accidental release, or disposal.

Analysis of residues gives insight on the type and extent of chemical contamination in an area, as well as how long it has been there. Before governments will approve the use of pesticides, they require comprehensive testing of their efficacy, environmental impact, and toxicology. A possible risk to human health arises from the presence of chemical residues and/or breakdown products in agricultural goods. Selective sampling plans can be used to learn more about pesticide traces in the environment, how they move about, and how quickly they degrade.

Pesticide: The act defines “pesticide” as any substance or other substance or product that is used to stop, kill, repel, or control insects, rodents, fungi, weeds, and other plants and animals that humans don’t need.

Introduction

The term pesticide refers to any chemical or mixture of chemicals intended for preventing, attracting, repelling, controlling or regulating a pest, including unwanted species of plants and animals during the production, shipment, transit, storage, processing or distribution of any food or agricultural commodity. The term includes compounds classified as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, accaricides, rodenticides, plant growth regulators, sprouting inhibitors, chemosterilants, desiccants etc. The term excludes substances like animal drugs and food additives. Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy or control weeds, insects or other pests. The term pesticide residue refers to the remnants of the pesticide after weathering and it consists of the parent molecule and the degradation products which are toxicologically significant. In general, the pesticides, by virtue of their inherent toxic nature are recommended to be used as per Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) only. If GAP is not followed, contamination of the produce with the residues may pose significant health risk to consumers, non target organisms, biota and environment as a whole. When a pesticide is used for pest control purposes, they may reside in the form of metabolites.

Pesticide residues occur as the leftover of any pesticide after its application for pest control and it includes the parent compound and its toxic metabolites. Pesticide residue analysis may be defined as qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and toxic metabolites. Pesticide residues are invariably present in micro – quantities and generally estimated at ppm/ ppb levels. After application of the diluted spray solution, they are present at sub microgram levels in the substrate and hence their estimation at ppm or ppb levels is very cumbersome and need to be performed with utmost care. Moreover, the residue data generated should be accurate, reliable and reproducible. The level of residue in any edible commodity has to be below their prescribed maximum residue limits (MRL) value for market acceptance and below maximum permissible intake (MPI) for safety to consumers. Pesticide residue data are mainly utilised by regulatory authorities for estimation of MRLs and for assessing impact on human health and environment, particularly their adverse effect on non-target organisms. The detection of the pesticide residues must be confirmed beyond doubt and confirmation by GC-MS/MS or LC-MS/MS is generally acceptable. Since pesticide residues include parent compounds, isomers and toxic metabolites, appropriate methods of detection should be selected so that all the components are measured separately. Environmental samples/ market usually contain residues of large number of pesticides, for which multi residue methods are required for estimation/screening of such samples.

India is the world’s second largest producer of fruits, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, aonla, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-tropical parts and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the temperate parts are also grown in a sizeable area. Date palm and fig cultivation is also finding favour in some areas. The major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

Production of fruits in India is 44.04 million tones from an area of 3.72 million hectares. One of the bottlenecks in fruit production is the losses incurred by insect pest and diseases which necessitated the use of pesticides to curb the pest problem. Use of pesticides in India is very low 0.350–0.5 kg/hectare as compared to 7.0 kg/hectare in USA, 2.5 kg/hectare in Europe, 12 kg/hectare in Japan and 6.6 kg/hectare in Korea. Despite of low pesticide consumption in India, there is a great problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these residues have entered into food products and underground water because of non-prescribed use of chemical pesticides, wrong advice and supply of pesticides to farmers by vested interests, non-observance of prescribed waiting period, pre-marketing pesticide treatments during storage and transport, use of sub-standard pesticides, effluents from pesticide manufacturing units, continued use of persistent pesticides for public health programme, lack of awareness and lack of aggressive educational programmes for farmers/consumers.

Spices are defined as “A strongly flavored or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “Any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. The word “spice” came from the Latin word “species,” meaning specific kind. The name reflects the fact that all plant parts have been cultivated for their aromatic fragrant, pungent or any other desirable properties including the seed (aniseed, caraway, coriander), leaf (cilantro, kari, bay, mint), berry (allspice, juniper, black pepper), bark (cinnamon), kernel (nutmeg), aril (mace), stem (chives), stalk (lemongrass), rhizome (ginger, turmeric, galangal), root (lovage, horse radish), flower (saffron), bulb (garlic, onion), fruit (star anise, cardamom, chile pepper) and flower bud (clove). Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purpose. Herbs, such as a basil or orengano, may be used fresh and are commonly chopped in to smaller pieces; spices however are dried and usually ground in to a powder (Anonymous, 2007).

In ancient times, spices were as precious as gold, and as significant as medicines, preservatives and perfumes. India is known as the home of spices and produces a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom (small and large), ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilli and a large variety of tree and seed spices. These have nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. They are good not only for our taste buds but also for our health. They have medicinal properties and also used as preservatives. Spices are well known appetizers, digestives and considered essential in culinary art all over the world. Some of them have antioxidant properties, while others possess strong antimicrobial and antibiotic activities. Spices increase the secretion of saliva rich in ptyalin, which facilitates starch digestion in the stomach, rendering the meals, which are rich in carbohydrates, more digestible. They inhibit thrombus formation and accelerate thromobolysis (Anonymous, 2007a).

The noun vegetable means an edible plant or part of a plant, but usually excludes seeds and most sweet fruits. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant. Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein or fat (Woodruff,1995 and Whitaker, 2001) and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, provitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates. They contain a great variety of other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties (Gruda, 2005; Steinmetz and Potter,1996). Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function. Some contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well. However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients such as á-solanine, á-chaconine,(Science direct) enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, and more (Bad Bug Bock > BBB–Clostridium botulinum). Depending on the concentration, such compounds may reduce the edibility, nutritional value, and health benefits of dietary vegetables. Cooking and/or other processing may be necessary to eliminate or reduce them. Diets containing recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables may help to lower the risk of heart diseases and two type of diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss. The potassium provided by vegetables may help to prevent the formation of kidney stones.

Pesticides sustain food production and control disease and pests. They are vital for crop production and instrumental in continuous increase in food production. The consumption of pesticide in India is one of the lowest in the world. India uses a low amount of 0.5 kg/hectare pesticide compared to 7.0 kg/ hectare by USA, 2.5 kg/hectare by Europe, 12 kg/hectare by Japan and 6.6 kg/ hectare by Korea. However, despite the low consumption of pesticides, India has more problem of pesticide residues vis-a-vis other countries and these have entered into food products and underground water because of

Pesticide Resistance

Resistance to pesticides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species.

Abstract

Tea (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze), a foliage crop of Sub-Himalayan Terai-Dooars has Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)(TMB), looper caterpillars [Hyposidra talaca, Hyposidra infixaria, Biston (=Buzura) suppresseria] and Red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae)(RSM) as major pests. In conventionally managed tea plantations, synthetic pesticides and acaricides are routinely applied. The pesticide-exposed pest populations show higher tolerance level as evident in their increased LC50 values. Augmented activities of detoxifying enzymes viz. general esterases (GE), glutathione S–transferases (GST) and cytochrome P450 mediated monooxygenases (CYP) were recorded in the pesticide-exposed pest populations. Sub–lethal exposure to monocrotophos (36% SL) enhanced the tolerance level in adult TMB by 105 fold through three generations. Increased activity of GE was evident in the pesticide-exposed populations of the tea loopers. Activities of GE and GST  in RSM were significantly higher in acaricide-exposed population. Present studies can help developing enzyme-based assay kit for determining level of pesticide-resistance. Integrated resistance management has become an integral part of modern day IPM practices. Adoption of newer chemicals, and cultural practices can minimise synthetic pesticide applications, thereby help reducing resistance development in pests.

Insecticides possess toxicity towards both pest organisms and human beings. Nevertheless, the potential harm to humans and non-target animal species can be mitigated by implementing appropriate safety measures. The ingestion or prolonged dermal exposure to most insecticide s can result in deleterious effects, whether intentional or accidental. Inhalation of insecticide particles may occur during the spraying process, and there is an associated risk of contamination of drinking water, food, or soil. The issue of safety is consistently a concern when utilizing insecticide s. Exposure to insecticide concentrates or vapour drift has the potential to cause harm to applicators, bystanders, and the surrounding environment. It is imperative to exercise specific precautions when engaging in the activities of transportation, storage, and handling. Individuals who are engaged in the handling and application of insecticide s are required to possess knowledge and adhere to appropriate safety protocols in order to mitigate potential risks. The foundation of ensuring insecticide safety lies in the selection of an appropriate product. The preservation of safety is of utmost significance in the various stages of insecticide management, including storage, transportation, mixing, and loading. The safe execution of equipment cleanup and maintenance is imperative, as it necessitates the proper disposal of unwanted insecticide s and empty insecticide containers. Regular cleaning and maintenance of spray equipment is essential in order to mitigate the occurrence of leaks. Furthermore, individuals who are involved in insecticide application should undergo comprehensive training to ensure their adeptness in handling these substances safely.

History

 • The fossil evidence also indicates the presence of plant diseases 250million years ago.

 • The diseases caused by fungi and nematodes were discovered by Monocernin 1735.

 • Johan Needham (1743) identified wheat gall caused by a nematode.

 • Adolf Mayer (1886), demonstrated the transmission of Tobacco mosaicvirus (TMV).

 • EF Smith (1890) described bacterial wilt in cucurbits.

• The thrips (Thysanoptera) as vectors of plant viruses were identified thescientific studies made by Samuel and his team.

 • Karl Maramorosch (1952) demonstrated the multiplication of Asteryellows virus (AYV) in leafhopper vector.

 • The mite Aceriatulipae has been identified as a vector of Wheat streakmosaic virus by JT Slykhuis in 1955.

 • The term “viroid” (viruses without protein coat) was coined by TO Dienerduring 1971.

Introduction
Pesticides play a crucial role in agriculture. During the period of the Green Revolution, the use of pesticides increased dramatically (Matson et al., 1997). According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), pesticides can be defined as compounds that are used for the destruction, repulsion, or prevention of organisms that can be harmful to cultured crops (pests) as well as affect the regulation of plant growth. They are categorized based on several factors, such as their chemical composition (organophosphates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, etc.), based on the types of pests they eradicate (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.), and application methods. Although each pesticide has a distinct purpose, they all have comparable advantages. Some of the primary benefits of pesticide usage are the prevention of disease andan increase in yield, whereas secondary benefits include economic efficiency, an increase in food quality, facilitation of sustainable agriculture, improving public health, etc. However, the extensive use of pesticides has its consequences. These pesticides are meant to control or eliminate pests, but their toxicity could end up in unexpected areas. Its utilization poses significant harm to the environment, particularly to aquatic ecosystems. While they are essential in agriculture, their unregulated application leads to environmental degradation. The level of toxicity is influenced by factors such as pesticide concentration, mode of action, chemical composition, and persistence in the environment. Pesticides can cause both acute as well as chronic health effects. Through runoff or leaching, they indirectly enter water bodies, harming aquatic flora and fauna. A 2001 study revealed that over 90 percent of fish and water samples collected from various streams contained traces of one or more pesticides (Kole et al., 2001).

Pesticide Toxicity

Chemical tactics to manage pests can include many types of compounds. Some merely repel or confuse pests. Some interfere with weed photosynthesis, insect molting processes or development in some way. Others, including some botanical and most conventional insecticides are broadly toxic to living systems. The term pesticide literally means “pest killer". Generally speaking, when using pesticides, we are trying to garner the advantages of using pesticides while minimizing the risk to humans and other non-target organisms. Risk to humans of pesticide use is often described as:

Introduction

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture and we have reached on such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

Introduction

The toxicant must be able to be applied effectively in order to come into touch with the pest or leaf and to leave a uniform and permanent deposit on the plant surface. Pesticide in chemically pure form is known as technical grade pesticides. These cannot be applied as such due to high toxicity and complex physical properties. They are converted into a ready to-use form known as formulation. Formulation converts the technical grade pesticide into a product which can be suitably diluted & applied by practical methods. Which have homogeneous distribution over large area, convenient to handle and more attractive to the pest.

There are broadly five categories of crop protection products

Insecticides: Insecticides provide protection to the crops from the insects by either killing them or by preventing their attack. They can be further classified based on their mode of action:

Slugs and snails occasionally cause serious damage to seedlings, tender, lowgrowing leafy vegetables; or ripening fruit that are on the ground. Feeding damage, hollowed-out areas, can be found anywhere on fruit, but is usually concentrated near the stem. Slugs leave a tell tale slime trail (silvery trail) behind on the surface of fruit or leaves.

Abstract
Pesticides, which are extensively employed in agriculture and pest management, pose serious dangers to the environment and public health because they frequently enter aquatic ecosystems through runoff, leaching, and inappropriate disposal. Acute and chronic toxicity in aquatic creatures caused by pesticide poisoning in water bodies can disturb ecosystem services and biodiversity. As sentinel species, fish have immune-toxic consequences, such as impaired immune function and increased vulnerability to illness. Aquatic animals and human health are at risk due to the bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish tissues and their subsequent biomagnification in the food chain. In order to control pesticide exposure and guarantee safety, important parameters such as Maximum Residual Limits (MRLs) and Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) are essential. In order to control pesticide, use and lessen its negative effects, government regulations and international standards are essential. In order to protect aquatic ecosystems and human health, future research should give priority to environmentally suitable pesticide substitutes and strong regulatory frameworks.
Keywords: Pesticides, Toxicity, Aquatic Environment, Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification.

Pesticides are used to control plant growth (herbicides), insects (insecticides), worms  (vermicides), bacteria (bacteriocides), fungi (fungicides), and other organisms. Almost without exception, pesticides are used to benefit humans by the control of unwanted species of plants (e.g. weeds in a lawn), disease-causing bacteria (e.g., Pneumococcus, the causative agent of pneumonia), disease-carrying insects (e.g. malarial or yellow fever mosquitoes) or in controlling destruction of agricultural products by disease-causing organisms (e.g., corn-borers, the virus of anthurium blight). Although they are by and large mostly beneficial, pesticides used both properly and improperly are also “resources out of place”, that is pollutants, that are subject to normal ecological processes.

The Insecticides Act, 1968 and Insecticides Rules, 1971 regulate the import, registration process, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of pesticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings or animals and for all connected matters, throughout India. However, recently the Union Cabinet gave its approval for the introduction of the Pesticides Management Bill with the aims of improving the quality of pesticides available to Indian farmers and introducing new, safe and efficacious pesticides. This bill will replace the existing Insecticide Act 1968.The pesticides’ regulations in India are governed by two different bodies:

10.1. Classification of pesticides

10.1.1. Based on organisms

Introduction

Pesticide in broad term refers to “killer of pests” but is an agent used to control, prevent, destroy, repel and mitigate a pest. Pesticides are thus poisonous substances intentionally applied in situations, which harbour so-called pests. Agriculture including poultry and veterinary (i.e. raising of crops and protection of produce and storage), health (public places-hospitals, restaurants, gardens cinema halls etc.), transportation (shipment, air rail and road transport) are some areas where pesticides are used extensively as spot application, fumigation, aerial and field sprays, soil treatments etc. Plant protection comes to be recognized as an equally important factor of agriculture production as improved seeds, fertilizers and irrigation. Pesticides over time get accumulated in the environment and contaminate all systems i.e. air, water, soil, plants, animals and micro-organisms on being transported from one system to another leading to biomagnifications.

The fate of a pesticide in the environment and the entities, which come in contact, is depicted in the Fig. 1 reflecting the pollution and contamination. Pesticides during manufacturing, transportation, storage and actual use enter the biotic and abiotic components of the environment through air, water and soil and disturb the cohesion causing great disaster sometimes. Pollution is defined as undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, land and water. This change may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, industrial process, living conditions and cultural assets. It may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources. Pollution increases burden of human society causing loss of resources through unnecessary wasteful exploitation, the cost of pollution abatement and deterioration of human health.

The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action, are known as ‘pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, ‘acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, ‘rodenticides’, ‘molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively.

Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read or write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. Paris green, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the Colorado beetles of potato.  Up to  1939,  only  a few inorganic  chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control.  Following the introduction of DDT,  several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action are known as ‘Pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, rodenticides’, molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively. Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read and write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests only to some extent.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. ‘Paris green’, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the ‘Colorodo beetles’ of potato. Up to 1939, only a few inorganic chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control. Following the introduction of DDT, several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

Bougainvillea is relatively pest-free. Worms, aphids, and moths might be an issue. Sometimes it gets attacked by spiders which can be controlled by using miticide and by the fungus Phytophthora which is checked by spraying Blitox (copper oxychloride) (Sharma 1996, Banerji 2010). Although it is normally pest-free plants, but may suffer from worms, snails and aphids. The larvae of some Lepidoptera species also use them as food plants, for example the giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia). Leaf spot disease caused by Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in the U.S.A. (Sobers and Martinez 1966, Sobers and Seymour 1969). When compared to B. spectabilis, B. glabra has been reported to be resistant or only slightly susceptible to the leaf spot disease (Pal and Swarup 1974). Cercosporidium bougainvillea has been reported in Colombo by Pardo-Cardona (1998) and in Indonesia by Kobayashi and Oniki (1994). The disease can be controlled by spraying copper Carbendazim at the rate of 1 g/l at an interval of 10-15 days. Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum in bougainvillea has been reported in Italy (Polizzi et al., 2010). Bacterial leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas andropogonis has been reported in Brunei, Darussalam (Peregrine and Ahmad 1982, Sivapalan and Hamdan 1997) and U.S.A. (Walker 1991, Walker and Hodge 1991). This can be controlled by spraying copper oxychloride at the rate of 3 g/l at intervals of 10-15 days.

Tropical tuber and root crops are subjected to the depredation of a number of insect and non insect pests. Comprehensive studies revealed that cassava is attacked by a wide range of arthropod and rodent pests. An exhaustive global account of cassava pests and their management was given by Anon (1978), Bellotti and Schoonhoven (1978) and Bellotti et al. (1999). Lal and Pillai (1982); Pillai and Palaniswami (1984), Pillai (1994) and Palaniswami (1999) reviewed the pests of cassava in India. Anon (1978), Sutherland (1986) and Jansson and Raman (1991) covered world sweet potato pests. Palaniswami (1999) detailed the pests attacking sweet potato in India. Pests of edible aroids, yams and chinese potato were comprehensively reported by Anon (1978); Mitchell and Maddison (1983) and Palaniswami (1994, 1999). In India about 34 species of insects and non-insect pests infest cassava, 80 species attack sweet potato, 46 species on edible aroids, 21 on yams and 10 on chinese potato. One of the main factors for the low productivity of these crops in India is attributed to the pest complex attacking them (Chadha, 2001).

Though a large number of insect pests are reported to attack mango, which cause considerable damage to mango crops in India. More than 492 species of insects, 17 species of mites and 26 species of nematodes have been reported to be infesting mango trees, about 45 per cent of which have been reported from India. Almost a dozen of them have been found damaging the crop to a considerable extent causing severe losses and, therefore, may be termed as major pests of mango. These are hopper, mealy bug, inflorescence midge, fruitfly, scale insect, shoot borer, leaf webber and stone weevil. Of these, insects infesting the crop during flowering and fruiting periods cause more severe damage. The insects other than those indicated above are considered as less injurious to mango crop and are placed in the category of minor pests. A brief description of the biology and control of major pests of mango is given below. Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of the plant, namely, trunk, branch, twig, leaf, petiole, flower and fruit are attacked by a number of pathogens including fungi, bacteria and algae. They cause several kinds of rot, die back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc. Some of these diseases like powdery mildew are of great economic importance as they cause heavy losses in mango production. Major pests and diseases of mango and their control measures are discussed below.

Anar butterfly, Deudorix isocrates (Fab.)

The pest has been found boring into fruits of pomegranate. Besides it may attack guava, aonla, apple, ber, citrus, litchi, loquat, sapota, etc., pomegranate is the most preferred host for this pest. It may destroy up to 50 percent fruits. The female lays eggs singly on calyx of flowers or small fruits. On hatching, the caterpillars bore inside the developing fruits and are usually found feeding on pulp and seeds just below the rind; subsequently bacteria and fungi causing fruit rot also attack the infested fruits. The conspicuous symptoms of damage are offensive smell and excreta of caterpillars coming out of the entry holes, the excreta is found stuck around the holes. The affected fruits ultimately fall down and are of no use; even if the fruits be picked before falling down, these fruits have no market value.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of the most important commercial crops of India. The crop is grown on commercial scale in coastal Maharashtra and other states of the country. The main reason for the low productivity is the pest incidence. The insect pests cause crop loss ranging from 30 to 40 per cent in cashew (Satapathy, 1993). Keeping in view, the strategy of increasing production, one of the important aspects is to develop technologies to save the crop from the pest incidences.

Cashew is attacked by around 180 species of insect and non-insect pests in India resulting in substantial yield loss (Sundararaju, 1993b). Godse et al. (2004) reported over 58 species of insects and pests on cashew crop in the Kokan region of Maharashtra region. The infestations of insect pests have been identified as one of the major factor responsible for low productivity. The most important pests that limit production are the cashew stem and borer (CSRB) and the tea mosquito bug (TMB). In addition, leaf and blossom webber, shoot tip caterpillar, and apple and nut borer cause damage. Recently, apple and nut borer and leaf miner are emerging as major pests and they also occasionally becoming serious in some orchards.

Amaranthus is an important leafy vegetable and is grown all over the Indian subcontinent. Amaranthus tricolor Linn and A. blittum Linn. are the common varieties cultivated. These herbaceous annuals are a rich source of proteins, vitamins A and C, and iron. The foliage is a good source of calcium, iron, and vitamins A, B, and C. In contrast, grains are good sources of important amino acids, particularly lysine, and are rich in dietary fibre, calcium, and minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, and manganese. It enhances the body’s immune system and antioxidant status while lowering blood pressure and cholesterol. Fresh leaves and tender stems are used as vegetables. Production of amaranthus is affected by the incidence of pests. Cultivated amaranth is currently infested by a total of 92 different insect pests. (Rajeshkanna et al., 2017) among which the leaf webbers and amaranthus stem weevil are the most important pests.
Biology: Black moth with dark brown wings bearing white wavy markings on wings. Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Egg period 3 to 4 days. Larval duration will be completed within a period of 2 weeks. Pupation occurs among the leaf webbings and pupal duration lasts for 10 days. Several larvae can be seen inside each leaf web.

The Indian gooseberry or amla (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.; Family: Euphorbiaceae) is a deciduous fruit largely cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for its fruits. Amla is native to the tropical South Eastern Asia, particularly the Central and Southern India (Mortan, 1960), where the plants are often seen to grow in the wild up to an elevation of 1800 m (Firminger, 1947). In India, amla is mostly cultivated in the semi-arid regions of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and the Aravalli ranges in Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh (Pathak, 2003). The tree attains a height of 8 to 18 m, with a crooked trunk and spreading pattern of branching. The branchlets are glabrous or finely pubescent; leaves are simple, nearly stalkless, set along the branchlets resembling pinnate type. 

Anthurium is a famous decorative cut flower and pot plant in the Araceae (order Spathiflorae) genus because of its extended vase life and beautiful, long-lasting inflorescences. After orchids, anthurium sales are the second-highest in the world.
Anthurium Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton
Order : Thysanoptera
Family : Thripidae
Biology: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii are small, pale yellow thrips commonly found in unopened anthurium buds and flowers. These pests are also commonly found in orchids. Females reproduce parthogenetically and on an average 80-100 eggs are laid by each female (Hata and Hara, 1998). Eggs are inserted inside the flower bud or leaf sheath. Nymphs are light yellowish in colour and are similar to the adults. Pupation takes place beneath the host plant in the soil or growing media. The entire life cycle lasts approximately 28 to 32 days but can extend up to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Increased temperatures and humidity, along with new growth of host plants, seem to promote thrips feeding and reproduction, resulting in heavier infestations and greater damage during the summer months

Apple (Malus pumila, though erroneously and commonly called Malus domestica) is a deciduous plant and considered to be the world’s one of the oldest fruit crops. The tree originated from Central Asia where M. sieversii, wild ancestor of cultivated apple is still found today. It is one of the most important table fruits of the world and excels other fruits in having prolonged keeping quality and wide variety of flavour and taste. It is a highly remunerative crop and is grown in all temperate regions of the world. In India apple is mostly grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and some parts of Arunachal Pradesh.

Banana is the eighth most important food crop in the world. It is widely cultivated in over 130 countries in the tropics and sub tropics of Asia, Africa and the United States. Plantains and bananas are next important to major cereals, forming a key component in food security and agricultural sustainability in the developing economics (Patel and Shukla, 2009, Shukla, 2010; Deepah and Paranjothi, 2010). Banana ranks fifth in the global market of agricultural commodities and is one of the largest traded fruit crops. It is popularly known as “Apple of the Paradise ”. The per capita starch output of banana from unit cultivated area is almost near cassava and sweet potatoes (Choudhary, 2015).

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.) is one of the most ancient and important fruit crops. It is considered as the “King of arid zone fruits”, due to its adaptations to tolerate the biotic and abiotic stresses prevailing under rainfed conditions (Anbu et al., 2009). It is also called as desert apple, jujube, Badari (Sanskrit), Chinee apple, Ber (Hindi), Kul or Boroi (Bengali), Indian plum, Boroi, Beri, Permseret (Anguilla) etc. It is a tropical fruit tree that belongs to the family Rhamnaceae. Ber is rich in amino acids, protein, sugar, calcium, phosphorus, carbohydrates, iron, vitamin A, ascorbic acid. The fruit contains from 70 and 165 mg ascorbic acid per 100 gm of pulp, which is two to four times higher than the vitamin C content of citrus fruits. The mineral content of phosphorus, calcium and iron in Z. mauritiana fruit is also reported as being higher than in apples and even oranges (Morton et al., 1987, Jawanda and Bal,1978).

Black pepper, popularly known as the “King of spices”, is the most popular spice crop in the world, and the crop originated in the Western Ghats and Malabar coast of India. India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Recently, black pepper production in the country remained stagnant at around 90000 tonnes in the last few years. Hence, India is losing its status as a leading producer and exporter of black pepper. Kerala accounts for 75 per cent of total black pepper production in the country. It has been noted that the increase in area under cultivation is not in tune with the increase in production. Low productivity is mainly due to the incidence of pests and diseases.
Black pepper is infested by 56 species of insects in India; among these, pollu beetle, (Lanka ramakrishnae Prathapan & Viraktamath), top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa Meyr), scale insects (Lepidosaphes piperis and Aspidiotus destructor) are considered as major pests (Devasahayam, 2000).
It is one of the most destructive pests of black pepper and the infestation is severe in plains of Malabar region (20-30 %) and low in hilly tracts (Wayanad and Idukki) and South Kerala.
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998). It was domesticated in India from the species Solanum incanum and India or Indo-China region is recognized as the centre of the eggplant diversity (Vavilov, 1951). Solanum melongena is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates. The fruit is botanically classified as a berry and contains numerous small, soft seeds which are edible, but have a bitter taste because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids. This is unsurprising as it is a close relative of tobacco.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998).

Brinjal (Solanum melongena), also known as eggplant or aubergine, is a major solanaceous vegetable crop grown in India and other parts of the world. It is affected by several insect pests throughout its growth period, significantly reducing both yield and quality.
Introduction
One of the major constraints in production and productivity of brinjal is the incidence of pests and diseases. The fruit and shoot borer is one of the most damaging pests of brinjal. Pest infestation starts from transplanting seedling stage and continues up to harvesting of the crop. Pest is active throughout the cropping season with peak infestation from last week of August to December
Distribution
China, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, Laos, Congo and South Africa

Cardamom, often called the “Queen of Spices”, is one of the most valuable and aromatic spices in the world. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and the genus Elettaria. Cardamom, which is indigenous to South India's Western Ghats, is grown for its tiny, fragrant, green pods that contain tiny seeds that are used in cosmetics, medicine, and cooking. Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are the main cardamom-growing states in India, which ranks among the world's top producers. The crop grows best in shady regions with evenly distributed rainfall, rich forest soils, and humid, tropical weather.
Introduction
Shoot and capsule borer is a significant pest that infests a wide variety of wild and cultivated plants. Since larvae directly affect the reproductive plant parts, this pest becomes more significant in tropical and subtropical nations. Yellow peach moth, cardamom, or castor shoot and capsule borer are other names for the shoot and capsule borer (Thyagaraj, 2003).
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. A serious pest of the nursery in cardamom
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae is very remarkable as a cut flower crop all over the world. It is well known for its attractive flowers with fragrance and varying colors. In India, the area under its cultivation is 2190 ha with a production of 8940 tones. But its production is affected by a number of insect pests and spider mite.
It is the two spotted spider mite or red spider mite which is considered as one of the most serious pests of carnation. High temperatures and low relative humidity favor the multiplication of these mites. These mites are found to be persisting throughout the year under polyhouse conditions.
Host range
Citrus, grapes, apples, pears, tomatoes, okra, potatoes, eggplant, beans, cucumbers, peppers, roses, jasmine, tea, coffee etc.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L., Family: Anacardiaceae) is a very important crop in India for earning foreign exchange. Portuguese travelers introduced this plant into India from Brazil during sixteenth century and the purpose was to check soil erosion on the coastal area. Though initially this crop is considered as a remedy for soil conservation, wasteland development and afforestation, but it gradually became a commercial important crop. Cashew is now widely grown in tropical regions and well adapted to the climatic condition of India. Now India becomes the largest producer, consumer, processor and exporter of cashew in the world. In India, cashew is mainly cultivated in Goa, Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka along the West coast and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Pondicherry and West Bengal along the East coast. To a limited extent it is also grown in some nontraditional areas like Kolar region of Karnataka and Bastar region of Chhattisgarh.

3.1. Paddy

3.1.1. Thrips: Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.), a member of the Solanaceae, is a significant spice and vegetable crop in India, extensively cultivated over warm temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions. Approximately 51 insect pests and two mite species from 27 families and 9 orders were discovered to be infesting chillies (Reddy and Puttaswamy, 1983). The yield losses range from 50-90 per cent due to insect pests in chilli (Nelson and Natrajan, 1994)
Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thripidae, Thysanoptera Biology
The adults are slender, yellowish brown in colour, with long, narrow, and heavily fringed wings. The adult female inserts eggs into the tissues of the leaves and shoots. The nymphs are similar to adults, except they are smaller and wingless. With the exception of the rainy season, the pest is present all year round. The life cycle is completed over a period of two weeks. Over the course of a year, multiple generations overlap.
Recently introduced invasive thrips in chilly is Thrips parvispinus Karny. It causes premature flower drop, shedding of fruits and malformations resulting in severe yield loss. The average fecundity is about 56 eggs with a mean developmental period of 18.8 days (Muray et al., 2009).

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America. The other two, Capsicum annuum and Capsicum fruitescens are commercially cultivated throughout the world. Capsicum annuum is the most commonly cultivated species and all green chillies in the market and most dry chillies belong to this group. Most of the small and highly pungent chillies belong to Capsicum fruitescens.

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America.