eChapters

The North-East Hilly Region (NER) has a good dairy and animal husbandry infrastructure and climatic condition conducive for raring high yielding dairy animals. Other than acting as a supplementary source of family nutrition, dairying is more as a source of livelihood as 90 per cent of the milk is sold out. The various dairy development programme and schemes launched in the region provide the necessary backward and forward linkages to the dairy farmers in term of feed and veterinary aids and collection, processing and marketing of milk. Considering the changing trends of competitiveness in the dairy market and dairy enterprise as such there is a need for a scientific and technological intervention to transform the traditional dairy farming system into a modern and profitable enterprise. The farmers need to be trained and exposed to modern dairy farming system in order to survive in the long run. The outlook for milk production has changed a lot and people are more concerned on the quality of milk and so necessary emphasis has to be made on clean milk production. To order to use the resources effectively and in order to sustain dairying there is a need to upgrade or replace the low yielding animals by high yielding breed/ variety. The SWOT analysis gives a strong signal for opportunities and avenues for further development of dairying in the region. To harness the opportunities of dairying a strong dairy supply chain need to be developed in an organized manner starting from milk producer to ultimate consumer.

Cleaning and sanitizing of dairy plants is essential for providing safe milk products to the consumers as well as for ensuring the good shelf life of these products. It ensures cleanliness, hygiene of the equipments and surroundings and also ensures that the products meet the safety standards. Cleaning of dairy plant consists of broadly of removing the soil from the surface of the equipment by dissolving or suspending the soil in a warm solution of suitable cleaning agents. In the dairy industry, the soil is primarily milk and milk product residues which may be more or less modified by processing treatment. 
Milk and milk product residues are complex mixtures of milk sugar, fat, proteins and mineral salts. Some of these solids are present in emulsion, some are in a colloidal state, and others are in true solution. When milk products are heated in vats or pumped through sanitary pipe lines or over coolers, the metal or glass surfaces become coated with milk remains, which, if allowed to dry, may be difficult to remove.

Introduction

At the time of inception of CPRI, in the year 1949, India used to produce 1.54 million tonnes potatoes from 0.234 million ha area at an average productivity level of 6.58 tonne/ ha. As per the first advance estimate of the NHB, the potato production in India during 2018-19 was 52.5 million tonnes from 2.18 million ha area at 24 tonnes/ ha productivity. The potato production, area and productivity increased over 7 decades by 34, 9.3 and 3.7 times, respectively. ICAR-CPRI has been adequately recognised by the nation on several occasions for this stupendous contribution. However, potato in India still has to transform from simply a vegetable supplement to serious food security option. Ability of potato to produce highest nutrition and dry matter on per unit area and time basis, among major food crops, made FAO to declare it the crop to address future global food security and poverty alleviation during 2008. Rising number of working couples, rapid rate of urbanization, enhanced tendency of eating out of home, higher disposable income levels of people and important place of potato in fast food items, create an ideal situation for expansion of potato consumption in the near and distant future.

A perusal of various R&D efforts and outcomes in the field of agriculture in general and, more specifically the potato, reveals that “Business as Usual” scenario would not hold much longer. We have to anticipate and get ready to tackle much more complex and diverse future challenges in our respective fields. As the time lag between research and development efforts and the final application/ adoption of the output may stretch over decades, a long term vision and blueprint of action plan is highly important. This chapter attempts to envisage long term state of affairs of potato industry in India and formulate a strategy to fulfil national needs through a well-documented plan to tackle anticipated challenges.

Although “e-agriculture” and other initiatives to bridge the rural digital divide were already underway around the world, the Community (and the term “e-agriculture”) emerged following the World Summits on the Information Society in 2003 and 2005. The WSIS global participants recognized that when addressing the challenges of the digital divide, particularly in the context of rural livelihoods, problems extend beyond technology. It is a multifaceted problem characterized by ineffective knowledge exchange and information content management, as well as a lack of human resources, institutional capacity, and sensitivity to gender and the diverse needs of various groups. With WSIS participants identifying and naming “e-agriculture” as a key action line to address the Millennium Development Goals, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was tasked with leading the development and subsequent facilitation activities that would truly engage stakeholders at all levels.

Synthesis of nanoparticulate metal composites (NMCP) presents a multitude of advantages compared to conventional dosage forms. Acne, a multifactorial skin condition, predominantly involves the pilosebaceous unit and is primarily caused by bacterial species such as Propionibacterium acnes and Acne vulgaris. A staggering 95% of the global population is afflicted by acne. Leveragitng NMCP strategies holds immense promise for innovating novel, efficacious, and low-dose treatments for managing acne. This review delves into various nanotechnological methodologies tailored for effectively addressing acne. Methods: This review encompasses recent advancements pertaining to NMCP carriers aimed at treating acne.

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) is rapidly transforming education by changing how knowledge is created, delivered, assessed, and experienced. Unlike conventional digital technologies that primarily retrieve or process existing information, generative AI can produce new text, images, audio, code, explanations, questions, and other learning resources in response to user prompts. This chapter introduces the foundations of GenAI and traces its evolution within educational environments, from conventional digital learning systems to intelligent, adaptive, and personalized platforms. It examines the role of Large Language Models, Retrieval-Augmented Generation, Learning Management System integration, multimodal learning, adaptive assessment, and AI-supported instructional design. The chapter also considers evidence from educational implementations involving school, higher education, and other learner groups. Particular attention is given to student engagement, self-regulated learning, teacher productivity, accessibility, fairness, privacy, and governance. By establishing the technological and pedagogical foundations of GenAI, the chapter provides a framework for understanding its opportunities, limitations, and responsible integration into contemporary education

Introduction

In India the present population of over 1000 million, accounting for about 18 percent of the world’s population, is estimated to become 1.4 billion by 2025 and 1.7 billion by 2050 AD, needing annually about 380 Mt and 480 Mt food grains respectively (Yadhav 2008). This scenario along with the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation will place tremendous pressure on the shrinking natural resources. However, we still have the capacity to produce enough food to meet the basic requirements of the burgeoning population, but the moot question is whether, we can do so while maintaining our natural resources and preserving the bio diversity at the same time. Land are the basic natural resources which are essential for agriculture.

Introduction

The science of hydrogeology is defined as hydrology with emphasis on geology. This chapter is to refresh your geology knowledge. The key words are highlighted to assist a quick review.

The Crust and its Composition

The thin outermost layer of the earth is called the crust and ranges in thickness from about 8 km under the oceans to about 25 km on land. It extends under both oceans and continents, and forms the source for all the soils, vegetation, and gases in the atmosphere.

The crust is primarily composed of two elements: silicon and oxygen which account for 75% of the earth’s crust. Note that these are the two elements found in quartz (e.g., sand), which suggests this is the most common of all minerals.

The main purpose of this lecture note is to provide basic information on patent drafting skills and train applicants for drafting a patent in clear and concise manner.

We will see the components of Complete Specification through the following Case studey (1) of a solar water heater. The figures are provided below for reference and better understanding.

5.1 Locale of Research

Based on the All-India assessment report regarding Climate Vulnerability Assessment for Adaptation Planning in India Using a Common Framework which identifies the most vulnerable states and districts in India with respect to current climate risk and the main drivers of vulnerability, the present study has been conducted in two relatively highly vulnerable states of India namely West Bengal (Vulnerability Indices:0.592) and Jharkhand (Vulnerability Indices: 0.674). It specifically comes under Agro-climatic zone III (Lower Gangetic plain region) and Agro-climatic zone VII (Eastern plateau and hilly region) respectively.

On the basis of Vulnerability Indices (Vis) different district of West Bengal classified into three categories i.e. relatively high vulnerability (0.59-0.69), moderate vulnerability (0.49 -0.59), and relatively low vulnerability (0.38- 0.49). Two districts, Malda (VIs:0.690) and Jalpaiguri (VIs:0.627) from highly vulnerable and three district Murshidabad (VIs:0.524), Dakshin Dinajpur (VIs:0.523) and Burdwan (VIs:0.497) from moderate vulnerable category were selected purposively for the present study. For satisfying the purposes three agroclimatic zones of the West Bengal, viz. Terai Zone (Jalpaigudi), Old Alluvial Zone (Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur) and New Alluvial Zone (Burdwan) districts were taken into account for the assessment. Twenty respondents of two Villages from each Block i.e., Alipurduar-I of Jalpaigudi, Hilli and Gangarampur of Dakshin Dinajpur, Old Malda of Murshidabad and Barabani of East Burdwan were purposively picked for the research study.

Educational content development traditionally requires substantial time and effort from teachers, instructional designers, and academic institutions. Generative AI is changing this process by enabling the rapid creation, adaptation, personalization, and transformation of learning materials. This chapter examines how GenAI can redesign educational content generation across different subjects, educational levels, and learner requirements. It explores automated lesson-plan generation, question-bank development, personalized learning materials, visual and interactive resources, simulations, and multimodal educational content. AI systems can generate explanations at different levels of complexity, create assessments aligned with learning outcomes, and adapt instructional materials to student performance. Such capabilities can support differentiated instruction, self-paced learning, and improved learner engagement while reducing repetitive preparation work for educators. The chapter also examines important challenges, including content accuracy, algorithmic bias, copyright, data privacy, academic integrity, and teacher readiness. Future possibilities include adaptive tutors, multimodal content generation, AI-supported curriculum design, and intelligent learning resources. Overall, the chapter emphasizes that GenAI should augment professional educational judgment rather than replace it.

Abstract

This study was aimed to document the Dawro people’s ethnobotanical knowledge, identify Non-Cultivated Food Plants (NCFPs) and associated challenges to their consumption. Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, market survey and field observations were conducted to gather the ethnobotanical data. The study documented a total of 47 non-cultivated food plant species belonging to 44 genera and 34 families. Shrubs (36.7%) and herbs (32. 7%) make up the highest proportion of these plants. The two most frequently used parts were fruits (62%) and leaves (18.4%).Over 70% of the species analyzed have additional uses, primarily for medicine, construction, and firewood. Most (68%) of the recorded species are consumed fresh without further processing and they are mainly fruits. The study found that non-cultivated food plants play a vital role to the Dawro people during food shortages.

Introduction

“Food insecurity is an enormous challenge at a global scale, with strong implications both for environmental management and for socio-economic development” (Rockstrom, 2003). This is exaggerated by persistent drought and uneven distribution of rainfall resulting in low crop yield. As the results, millions of lives are threatened with starvation caused by food shortages particularly in the arid and semi arid regions where majority of population still rely on rain-fed agriculture to secure food security (Ntsheme, 2005).

The majority of the affected population threatened with starvation resides in the rural areas with little or no income at all. It is projected that large number of population will be without food in coming years. This is exacerbated by slow economic growth and poor performance in the agricultural sector. It is likely that the increment of the food gap will occur in the near future intensifying the shortage of food in the region (Kundlande et al, 2004).

Technologiocal intervention is essential for improving pulse productivity through introduction of suitable high yielding varieties (Masood Ali and Shiv Kumar 2009). This is only possible through: (i) development of high yielding varieties with multiple resistance/tolerance to major diseases like mung bean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), powdery mildew (PM) and Cercospora in mung bean and urdbean; (ii) development of varieties having resistance and tolerance to pre-harvest sprouting in mung bean, (iii) development of efficient plant type with high biomass and harvest index, (iv) development of varieties suited for intercropping system, (v) broadening genetic base of developed varieties, (vi) development of 50-55 days varieties of mung bean having 1 tonne/ha productivity and resistance to YMV for summer cultivation, (vii) development of high yielding and early maturity varieties of peas having resistance to powdery mildew, (viii) developing rajmash genotypes resistant to bean common mosaic virus and sclerotia rot, tolerant to high/low temperature and shattering resistance are important ones for increasing production through varieties intervention (AICRP MuLLaRP, http://iipr.res.in/mullarp).

11.1 Agroterrorism

‘Agroterrorism’, also known as ‘agriterrorism and agricultural terrorism’, is a malicious attempt to disrupt or destroy the agricultural industry and/or food supply system of a population through “the malicious use of plant or animal pathogens to cause devastating disease in the agricultural sectors”. It is closely related to the concepts of biological warfare, chemical warfare and entomological warfare, except carried out by non-state parties. It refers to a hostile attack towards an agricultural environment including infrastructures and processes in order to significantly damage national or international political interests.

The terms ‘agroterrorism, agroterror and agrosecurity’, were coined by veterinarian pathologist Corrie Brown and writer Esmond Choueke in September 1999 as a means to spread the importance of this topic.

1.1 Introduction

Since the beginning of humankind, we have thrived as a species due to our unique capabilities. These skills have developed and progressed over the centuries to the point that, in recent decades, we have been able to build machines that can imitate our intelligence, as far as we comprehend it. A novel type of world may lie ahead of us.

Artificial intelligence is the future, and the future is here." - Dave Waters

Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the replication of human intelligence in computers, which are programmed to think and behave in a manner similar to humans. Literacy, logic, problem-solving, perception, and linguistic appreciation are all manifestations of cognitive abilities. Artificial Intelligence refers to the development of computer systems, computer-controlled robots, or software that are designed to exhibit intelligent behavior similar to that of the human mind. The term artificial intelligence is composed of the word "Artificial," which denotes something created by humans rather than existing naturally, and "Intelligence," which refers to the capacity to gain and utilize knowledge and skills.AI is achieved by the analysis of patterns in the human brain and the evaluation of cognitive processes. The culmination of these studies leads to the creation of sophisticated software and systems with advanced intelligence. The term AI was coined by McCarthy et al. 2006 while working on Dartmouth summer research project in which they proposed that machines have the capability to emulate "every facet of learning or any other characteristic of intelligence."

Protozoa are considered as unicellular eukaryotic organisms and evolved after bacteria and thousands years early to multi-cellular organisms as well as animals. This unicellular eukaryotic organism contains all the organelles or structures like multi-cellular organisms but in single cells. Similar to multicellular, the genetic information of protozoa is also stored in chromosomes. The protozoa differ from bacteria in different manners. The differentiating features of bacteria and protozoa are given in Table 1.
1. General Structures of Protozoa
Protozoa, like other eukaryotic cells, contain a nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Beyond these common organelles, protozoa feature a range of unique structures with specific functions that enable them to operate independently. Protozoan cells can be categorized into two primary components: the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry research and development in scientific mode in India started about thirty years ago with few individual scientists working on the aspect. However, concentrated efforts started with the establishment of a network under co-ordinated mode throughout the country in the year 1983. Since then lot of research has been done and recommendations made. The present paper compiles the chronological sequences of the starting of AICRP on AF along with its co-ordinating partners. Suitable perennial species and agroforestry systems recommended for respective agroclimatic zones of the country are also compiled. National seminars and group meeting conducted for popularizing and extending agroforestry to every corner of the country had also been provided.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is an age old practice and was a way of life since the settled agriculture evolved from forest. However, with passage of time the cropping system was converted to monocropping and in the way the benefits of integrating the perennials with annuals were forgotten. In the late 70’s of 20^th century, benefits of integrating perennials in cropping system was again realized and efforts were diverted towards scientifically associating the perennials and annuals. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan an eminent scientist while addressing first agroforestry seminar at Imphal in 1979 stated that agroforestry lies the key solution of some of the problems of forestry “what is now important is to give a scientific context and better planning like a good architect who can plan the use of space more efficiently”. This seminar was a spark in the history of scientific agroforestry in India. Taking into account the vide variation in edaphic and climatic factors in India along with the perennial nature of the systems, it was felt that working in isolation would not yield fruitful results and therefore, an association of scientist and institutes of different agroclimatic regions in form of a network was felt imperative and a viable wayout and hence the birth of AICRP on Agroforestry. All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was initiated vide ICAR letter number 21(1)/80-SW & DF dated 7^th February, 1983 at 20 centers of which 12 centers were located in State Agricultural Universities and eight at the ICAR institutes. Later on more co-ordinating centers were added and at present there are 37 AICRPAF co-ordinating centers with 10 centers in ICAR institutes and 27 centers located in State Agriculture Universities covering all the major agroecological zones of the country. The coordinating unit of the project was initially located at ICAR, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, which was shifted to National Research Center for Agroforestry, Jhansi w.e.f. 1^st April, 1997 under the administrative control of Director, NRCAF.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Fisheries remain important sources of food, nutrition, income, and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people around the world including in India. Total fisheries and aquaculture production reached a record of 214 million tonnes in 2020, comprising 178 million tonnes of aquatic animals and 36 million tonnes of algae (FAO 2022). Global aquaculture production continued to grow amid the worldwide spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Global aquaculture production consisted of; 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals predominantly used as food for human consumption; 35.1 million tonnes of seaweeds and other micro-algae for both food and non-food uses. Global consumption of aquatic foods has increased significantly. In 2019, global aquatic food consumption was estimated at 158 million tonnes and consumption increased at an average annual rate of 3.0 percent from 1961, compared with a population growth rate of 1.6 percent. In India, the total fish production during the year 20-21 is estimated at 14.73 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) with a contribution of 11.25 MMT from the inland sector and 3.48 MMT from the marine sector. The fisheries sector contributes about 1.24% to the gross value added (GVA) and 7.28% to the agricultural GVA. In India, the changing consumer preferences, advancements in technology and income growth are the real drivers that augur well for further expansion and demand of food from aquatic origin. Against this backdrop, this sector is poised for unprecedented growth and opening various avenues of entrepreneurship.

Kingdom: Protozoa
Phylum: Euglenozoa
Class: Kinetoplasta
Order: Trypanosomatida
Family: Trypanosomatidae
Genus: Trypanosoma
Members of the genus Trypanosoma are responsible for trypanosomosis in animals and human beings and are found in the blood vascular system and tissues all over the world. All the species of trypanosomes are transmitted biologically or mechanically through an arthropod vector except T. equiperdum, which is transmitted through coitus in equines.