eChapters

The Management tools are very useful to achieve the objectives of any extension organization. There are number of management tools, which extensively used for better personal and organizational effectiveness, such as follows: Johari window, SWOT analysis, Agro-Ecosystem analysis, PRA, Transaction Analysis, etc.

• Personal Effectiveness-Johari Window:

The personal effectiveness is very useful for success of management in any extension organization. In Extension organization, the manager or leader has to deal with human beings to obtain the objectives’ of the organization through better personal effectiveness. The basic precondition for personal effectiveness is better self-awareness but understanding one does not alone make a person effective.

The Johari Window: The simple and widely used model of self-awareness is the Johari window, developed by Joseph Luft& Harry Ingham in 1973. In this model, there are two main dimensions for understanding the self: Those aspects of a person’s behavior and style that known to him(Self) and those aspects of his behavior known to those with whom he interacts(Others). A combination of these two dimensions reveals fur areas of knowledge about the self.

Objectives
• Comprehend the fundamental concepts of personal and professional communication and their significance in various contexts.
• Develop an understanding of the key elements that contribute to effective verbal and non-verbal communication.
• Identify common barriers to communication and learn strategies toovercome them in personal and professional settings.
• Enhance personal communication skills, including active listening, empathy, assertiveness, and constructive feedback.
• Acquire professional communication skills essential for writing, verbal interactions, and presentations in the workplace.
• Understand the dynamics of communication in different professional contexts, including teamwork, cross-cultural communication, and conflict resolution.
What is Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information, thoughts, ideas, and feelings between individuals or groups. It involves the sender, message, medium, receiver, and feedback. Types of communication include personal communication, which is informal a nd characterized by emotional and personal expression, and professional communication, which is formal and involves clear messaging that follows organizational protocols.

Dr. Chauhan’s philosophy as a Veterinary Pathologist reflects a profound understanding of the interconnectedness of life and an unwavering commitment to the well-being of animals. His approach is rooted in compassion, scientific rigor, and a holistic appreciation of the delicate balance that sustains ecosystems. Over the years, he has become a beacon of hope for gaushalas and cow enthusiasts, demonstrating that veterinary medicine is not just a profession but a calling that demands empathy, dedication, and an unyielding respect for life.
At the core of Dr. Chauhan’s philosophy is the belief that every living being, regardless of its size or species, deserves dignity and care. To him, animals are not mere creatures but sentient beings with emotions, instincts, and intrinsic value. This perspective shapes his practice, as he treats each animal with the same care and attention he would give to a human patient. Whether it’s a stray dog in need of emergency care, a farm animal requiring preventive medicine, or an endangered species in a conservation program, Dr. Chauhan approaches his work with equal seriousness and respect.
Dr. Chauhan emphasizes the importance of understanding animals within the context of their natural behaviors and environments. He often says, “To heal an animal, you must first listen to what it cannot say.” This insight has driven him to study not only veterinary medicine but also animal behavior, ecology, and the complex relationships between humans and animals. He believes that understanding these dynamics is essential for providing comprehensive care. For example, he advocates for preventive care practices that align with an animal’s natural rhythms, such as vaccination schedules that account for seasonal changes and diets that mimic an animal’s natural food sources.

The College of Food Technology was established in the year 1976 at Parbhani as one of the constituent College of VNMKV, Parbhani. Food Technology College involves the knowledge of application of different fields of food Science and also includes transfer of Food Science technology to the students to make them well equipped with knowledge and skills required for employment in public  and private sector.

The compliance with hygienic and aesthetic standards in the dairy factory is, in the final analysis, dependent on the human element. Each employee, from top management to the most junior operative, has his role in the factory sanitation programme and carelessness at any stage may cause quality deterioration of products or endanger the health of consumers. Legal action against the dairy may also result from neglect of hygiene. Personnel hygiene refers to the personal cleanliness and related habits of the workers. Milkborne infections frequently originate from food contaminated by workers through their hands, breath, hair, perspiration, pimples, infected wounds, coughs, and sneezes. Transfer of even traces of human and animal excreta by the workers is a potential source of pathogenic microorganisms. Foodborne illness is known to originate from workers who were ill and practiced unsanitary food handling methods or poor personal hygiene. Even the healthy worker, who does not exhibit the symptoms of the disease, may harbour food poisoning bacteria in the respiratory or intestinal tract. It is always desirable, as a matter of practice, to look at different parts of the human body in terms of potential sources of bacterial contamination. Provisions regarding personal hygiene of employees are contained in all legislation dealing with milk treatment.

Every small business manager is a personnel manager in the sense that work is done through people, with people and for the people. Consequently, the owner-manager should be personally capable of handling employee relations until the company becomes large enough to afford a personnel manager. Planning personnel requirement, developing sources from which new employees can be recruited, choosing (recruiting) the needed people, training and developing them into productive workers, evaluating their performance, compensating them and dealing with various personnel relationship, including industrial relation are included under personnel management.

Staffing

Staffing is a critical function of organizing and managing a successful business. All companies, whether large or small, are involved in the staffing process. All businesses run the same risk every time they hire a new employee. The staffing function is generally divided into four major categories (1) staffing needs, (2) acquisition, (3) motivation, and (4) retention.

Organic Agriculture
Organic and biodynamic farming use natural methods to grow crops, avoiding inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals throughout the growth stages. This approach relies on natural biological systems, preserving their relationships and self-regulation, unlike conventional farming, which heavily depends on synthetic inputs. As a result, plant and animal varieties bred for intensive agriculture often do not align with organic principles. To unlock the full potential of organic farming, genetics of seeds should also be organic, ideally bred and grown exclusively in organic conditions to best suit these systems.
Organic plant breeding
Improving the genetic diversity of the crops and their adaptation to the future organic growing conditions and climate change need to be done through organic plant breeding. The choice of varieties for organic farming that are mostly derived from conventional bred varieties, sustainable use of natural input resources and at the dynamic equilibrium of the entire agro ecosystem are the main features. The organic breeding programs should match with the reproduction system of the respective crop. Seeds and vegetatively propagated crops are important resources for organic breeding. The Organic agriculture system relies on natural inputs and pesticide free and non GMO crops, vegetable and fruits aiming providing healthy food. In an overall manner, organic agriculture is the expression of underlying ecology, fairness and health. Organic agriculture is presently practiced in organically converted and managed land area equal to 2% of the cultivated area in India.
International Federations of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) (2015 and 2017): Organic agriculture is defined as a production system that sustains the soil health, ecosystem and people. It relies on ecological processes, bio diversity, and local conditions. Organic farming is part of organic agriculture and it is basically based on the underlying principles of health, fairness, ecology and care. The well-known characteristic of organic farming is, it produces food without the use of any synthetic fertilizer or pesticides and also without the use of GMO. Trends and perspectives in organic plant breeding are recognized as a highly collaborative and possess strong interrelationships.

Introduction

In the era of communication and information, each one of us should have access to information as per our choice, interest, priority, need and requirement. We all are playing different role in different walk of life in different capacity, for different professions, avocations, duties and responsibilities as well. To internalize any concept or idea, a perceptual clarity is very much necessary for interweaving it in our experiential textures. This is possible when more and more number of sensory organs are engaged in a learning situation irrespective of the subject or content to learn. In 21 Century with the advancement of science and technology, more particularly, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), it is possible to establish the connectivity on e-mode and do the things on virtual mode to the possible extent. It is quite possible in urban set up with proper infrastructural facilities both at the source as well as at the receiver end, without any distortion of message on account of electricity failure or wrongful handling of computer or any gadget for that matter.

Introduction

Humans are able to live and work in almost all the environmental extremes of the planet earth and also in space due to their remarkable physiological adaptability and/or by modification of environment itself. Adequate nutrition plays a key role in adaptation and accordingly nutritional needs vary to a great extent. Nutraceutical, a term combining the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical”, is a food or food product that provides health and medical benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary supplements and specific diets to genetically engineered foods, herbal products, and processed foods such as cereals, soups, and beverages. Nutraceutical is a broad umbrella term used to describe any product derived from food sources that provides extra health benefits in addition to the basic nutritional value found in foods. Products typically claim to prevent chronic diseases, improve health, delay the aging process, and increase life expectancy. Phytochemical profile in important crops such as ber, aonla, pomegranate, date palm, karoda, bael, aloe vera, cactus pear of arid region have been indicated that there is wide variation among primary and secondary metabolites. Thus it has become imperative to look into markers linked to high contents of bioactive compounds rather than size and sweetness of the fruits during exploration and evaluation of the plant germplasm.

Persuasive speaking is a powerful tool for influencing opinions, inspiring action, and fostering change. Unlike informative speaking, which focuses on sharing knowledge, persuasive speaking aims to convince the audience to adopt a particular viewpoint, belief, or behavior. Whether in a business pitch, a political campaign, or a motivational speech, mastering the art of persuasion is essential for effective communication. This chapter explores the key components, strategies, and techniques that define persuasive speaking and how to deliver impactful persuasive speeches.
Persuasive speaking is a form of communication aimed at influencing the beliefs, attitudes, values, or behaviors of an audience. Unlike informative speaking, which focuses solely on sharing knowledge, persuasive speaking seeks to convince the audience to adopt a particular perspective or take a specific action. It is widely used in various settings, including public debates, marketing pitches, advocacy campaigns, and motivational speeches.
At its core, persuasive speaking involves presenting arguments that resonate with the audience, using a combination of credibility, emotion, and logic. Effective persuasion requires not only compelling content but also an understanding of the audience’s values, beliefs, and needs.
Key Characteristics of Persuasive Speaking
1. Goal-Oriented
Persuasive speaking is driven by a clear objective, such as changing opinions, inspiring action, or reinforcing existing beliefs.
Example: A speech urging people to donate to a charity aims to motivate the audience to take immediate action.
2. Audience-Centered
A successful persuasive speech focuses on the audience’s interests, concerns, and values, tailoring the message to connect with their perspectives.
Example: Advocating for renewable energy by emphasizing job creation to an audience concerned about unemployment.

1. Brief Basic Information on Country and Agrarian Status

Peru is the third largest country in South America with 1,285,215 square-meters and in general, there are three well defined regions: the Coast (11 per cent of the territory), the highlands (30 per cent of the territory) and the jungle (59 per cent of the territory). Peru is characterized by the high variability of agro-ecosystems ranging from Deserts in the Coast, lowlands, hills, high mountains, and rainforest in the Jungle. Each region has different agro-climatic conditions, infrastructure and enterprise development. The total cultivable land area is 54,76,977 hectares that is equivalent to 4.3 per cent of the national territory. The coast has 8,70,200 hectares of irrigated land (no rain-fed land because of lack of rain in the coast) and has the best conditions for cultivation of export crops. The highlands have 28,33,800 hectares of cultivable land, 70 per cent of them is under rain-fed condition and the total of the 17,73,000 hectares of cultivated land under rain-fed conditions1 . Land property has undergone a process of changes in the last 40 years.

Introduction

Agriculture in general and horticulture in particular are highly vulnerable to year-to-year climatic variability. Farmers and other decision makers in agriculture make decisions based on their understanding of general climatic patterns for their regions. Crops are constantly threatened by pests such as insects and nematodes, as well as diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other micro-organisms. However, depending on weather conditions, the severity is very variable from year to year and often control strategies are applied without considering the climatic variability. Moreover, following the global climate change predictions, meteorological conditions triggering pest population/disease infection cycles are destined to increase, leading to consequent increase of the pests/diseases pressure. Sustainable plant protection strategies rely on weather and climate related pest and disease forecasting models in order to:

Natural farming in India adopts a preventive and ecosystem-based approach to pest and disease management, prioritizing ecological harmony over chemical control. Rather than eradicating pests, the aim is to regulate their populations through natural mechanisms and enhance the farm’s biological resilience.
Natural farmers commonly use plant-based formulations such as Agniastra, Brahmastra, and Neemastra. These are prepared from locally available herbs, cow urine, and cow dung, and serve as effective insecticidal and antifungal sprays. Neem (Azadirachta indica) plays a central role due to its wide-ranging pestrepelling properties and is a staple in fermented bio-sprays. Practices like crop
rotation, intercropping, and companion planting help disrupt pest life cycles and minimize disease occurrence. Crops like marigold deter nematodes and aphids, while plants like basil and turmeric suppress fungal infections. These practices also promote the presence of beneficial insects and pollinators, contributing to natural pest control.
A key strategy in natural farming is enhancing soil health through inputs like Jeevamrit, compost, and fermented plant extracts. These boost microbial activity, which in turn suppresses soil-borne pathogens and strengthens plant
immunity. Waaphasa—ensuring proper soil aeration—helps prevent root diseases by maintaining an optimal air-moisture balance in the rhizosphere.
Regular field inspection and sanitation help in early detection of pest issues. Timely weeding and residue management further reduce disease spread. Immediate application of natural deterrents can prevent outbreaks from escalating.

In natural beekeeping systems, the management of pests and diseases focuses on prevention, ecological harmony, and chemical-free practices that safeguard both bee health and environmental integrity. Departing from conventional methods that often depend on synthetic antibiotics, fumigants, or miticides, natural approaches aim to fortify the colony’s inherent resilience through biological and culturally grounded techniques. Central to this strategy is the maintenance of strong, genetically robust colonies, ensuring clean and well-aerated hives, and providing nutritional support through diverse and abundant floral sources. Healthy, wellnourished colonies are inherently more capable of withstanding infections and parasitic invasions.

Indian apiaries commonly contend with pests such as wax moths, ants, wasps, small hive beetles, and mites like Varroa destructor and Tropilaelap sclareae. Diseases including American foulbrood, European foulbrood, chalkbrood, and Nosema can pose significant threats if not identified and contained promptly. Natural management emphasizes routine hive inspections to detect early symptoms, followed by the removal and safe disposal of infected combs. Maintaining adequate space between colonies can minimize disease transmission, while structural modifications to hive entrances and the use of barriers like ash rings or water moats effectively deter ants and other intruders.

In natural beekeeping systems, the management of pests and diseases focuses on prevention, ecological harmony, and chemical-free practices that safeguard both bee health and environmental integrity. Departing from conventional methods that often depend on synthetic antibiotics, fumigants, or miticides, natural approaches aim to fortify the colony’s inherent resilience through biological and culturally grounded techniques. Central to this strategy is the maintenance of strong, genetically robust colonies, ensuring clean and well-aerated hives, and providing nutritional support through diverse and abundant floral sources. Healthy, wellnourished colonies are inherently more capable of withstanding infections and parasitic invasions. Indian apiaries commonly contend with pests such as wax moths, ants, wasps, small hive beetles, and mites like Varroa destructor and Tropilaelap sclareae. Diseases including American foulbrood, European foulbrood, chalkbrood, and Nosema can pose significant threats if not identified and contained promptly. Natural management emphasizes routine hive inspections to detect early symptoms, followed by the removal and safe disposal of infected combs. Maintaining adequate space between colonies can minimize disease transmission, while structural modifications to hive entrances and the use of barriers like ash rings or water moats effectively deter ants and other intruders. Traditional plant-based treatments play a vital role in this approach. Natural substances such as neem, turmeric, garlic, tulsi, and cow urine (gomutra) possess antifungal, antibacterial, and repellent properties. Preparations like neem oil or garlic water sprays, when applied around the hive (avoiding direct contact with bees), can help repel mites and beetles. Cow dung and ash, smeared around hive stands, serve as an age-old deterrent to ground pests. Propolis, a resin collected by bees, acts as a natural antiseptic; encouraging its accumulation by roughening interior hive surfaces helps enhance hive hygiene and immunity.

Introduction

Surging food demand and shrinking land resources to produce more from the limited natural resources like soil and water is poised to environmental degradation. Increased production must be achieved mainly by increasing crop productivity per unit area while sustaining the environment and enhanced input use efficiency. Agricultural production systems are increasingly under pressure to adapt decision-making process to be make more informed and efficient use of irrigation water, fertilizers and pesticides. Adverse effects of climate change are added challenges to agricultural productivity. Efficient crop management strategies to improve resource use efficiency and reduce crop losses are vital issues to be taken care for a sustainable sustainably enhanced production system. Genetic improvement approaches involving high throughput phenotyping and genomics-assisted breeding enhancing resource use efficiency, stress tolerance, yield has become imperative. Precise crop health monitoring is one of the keys to the modern production system. Obviously, disease forecasting and surveillance systems are in great demand to adopt precise management against the losses caused by diseases. Predicting disease risk at regional and global scales is of great interest for on-farm management and for assessment of agricultural policies and practices.

Abstract

Ten pests belonging to six insect and mite orders were recorded infesting strawberry cv. Chandler in Paonta and Doon Valleys of North Indian during 2001-04. Out of these Heliothis armigera Hubner, Spodoptera litura F., Thrips tabaci  Kheg, Holotrichia insularis Brenke, Odontotermes obesus Ramb and Tetranychus telarius L were of primary significance. Two fortnightly application of endosulfan (0.05%) from mid April proved effective in containing the attack of first two most devastating pests.

Introduction

Increased food production is required to ensure food security in the face of the rising world population. The strategy will include cropping of the rising world population. The strategy will include cropping of the new geographical areas and increase in the per hectare crop yields, through better crop management; losses of the food in storage will have to be minimized.

The food grains and their products are susceptible to deterioration by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors. These include the high temperature, moisture, micro-organisms, mites, insects and rodents. Together they account for loss of about 25% of food grains worldwide. The losses are highest in the tropical and sub-tropical areas where conditions are relatively conductive for rapid growth and multiplication of the organisms that cause damage to the food materials, especially insects. Reliable pesticide and storage techniques are required for limiting the damage to food grains in storage in most of the developing countries of the areas.

Insect pest control includes all measures adopted to make the life of insects hard and ultimately to destroy them or to prevent their multiplication and spread. Such measures can be taken up before the appearance of the pests or after occurrence of the pests. To achieve this purpose, it is quite necessary to know the factors which favor the occurrence of the pests and acquire enough knowledge about the nature and life cycle of the pests, the vulnerable growth stage at which they can be effectively destroyed and appropriate measures of control. Control measures may be either preventive or direct.
Insect pest control is broadly classified under two different heads viz., natural control and applied control.

I. Natural control
    1.    Climatic conditions. Temperature, rainfall, sunshine etc.
    2.    Physical or topographic factors. Mountains, oceans, rivers, lakes, forests, deserts etc.
    3.    Natural enemies. Parasitoids, predators including insects, birds, mammals, reptiles etc.
    4.    Disease causing organisms or parasites. Entomophagous fungi, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms.

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary prerequisite to all other enquiries about the biological world. Taxonomists attempt to divide the world of living things (biodiversity) into distinguishable entities (taxa-such as species, genera, and families), develop tools (e.g., identification keys) to allow others to recognize and identify these taxa, and organize the described taxa within a hierarchical classification system that reflects evolutionary relationships. The outcomes of taxonomy are, therefore, very practical in terms of providing tools to facilitate identification, an infrastructure for organizing biological information, and a universal language for communicating information about the identity and classification of biological entities. Thus, naming and ordering of objects into groups is probably the most fundamental step in the development of scientific principles. Taxonomy identifies and enumerates the components of biological diversity providing basic knowledge underpinning pest management (Ramaraju and Pratheep, 2008). 

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary pre-requisite to all other enquiries about the biological world.

Introduction

The introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids in late sixties led to accumulation of insect pest problems in cereals. The varieties and hybrids developed during green revolution era with the sole objective to enhance production to feed increasing population were better in quality parameters than traditional locals but were highly susceptible to insect pests. Over 200 pests attack different cereals and insects that were not known or were of minor importance have now become major pests and several new insect pests have appeared on cereals. Out breaks are frequent due to several obvious reasons. Major pests are serious, perennially occurring and persistent species which cause considerable loss in yields every year in large areas require control measures. Occasional pests attack the crops sporadically but cause potential damage and sufficient loss, though in some localities or only in some seasons, so as to warrant human intervention.

10.1 Introduction

Grain legumes such as chickpea, pigeonpea, cowpea, field pea , lentil, ,  and Phaseolus beans are the principal source of dietary protein among vegetarians, and are an integral part of daily diet in several forms worldwide. They are an important component of cropping systems to maintain soil fertility because of their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, extract water and nutrients from the deeper layers of the soil as compared to cereals, and add organic matter into the soil through leaf drop. However, grain legumes are mainly grown under rainfed conditions and the productivity levels are quite low mainly because of severe losses due to insect pests and diseases.  Average grain yield of pulses (0.86 t/ha) is only about one-fourth the average yields of cereals (3.54 t/ha).  Production and productivity of grain legumes is constrained by several biotic and abiotic factors, and suffer an average of 31.9 to 69.6% loss in crop productivity due to insects, diseases, drought, weeds,  and soil fertility. Pod borers (Helicoverpa and Maruca), Fusarium wilts, viral diseases, Ascochyta blight and Botrytis gray mold (Chen et al., 2011).

1. Introduction

Over the centuries, the use of medicinal herbs has become an important part of daily life despite the progress in modern medical and pharmaceuticals research. It is estimated that 40% of the world populations depends directly on plant based medicine. India is one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres. Herbal industry in India uses about 8000 medicinal plants. Indian export of raw drugs has steadily grown at 26% to Rs.165 crores in 1994-’95 from Rs.130 crores in 1991-’92 and this is likely to touch US $5 trillion by 2050. Thus, India has a great role to play, as supplier of herbal products not only to meet the domestic needs, but also to take advantage of the tremendous export potential.

Biotic stress related problems are important bottlenecks for the successful commercial cultivation of any crop. Medicinal plants are not the exception and are vulnerable to be attacked by several pests and pathogens resulting crop loss in terms of both quantity as well as quality. Therefore, the “health of these healthy plants” should be concerned. Without proper identification and prior knowledge of the pests and diseases, the management will be a waste of time and money and can lead to further plant losses.

Introduction

Walnut is the oldest cultivated fruit in the world (Ozkan and Koyuncu, 2005). Juglans regia L., the Persian walnut, is probably native to a wide region extending from the Carpathian Mountains across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanisan and southern Russia to northern India. Species of walnuts, genus Juglans, are found in the forests of the eastern and southern parts of the USA, in Mexico and Central America, the Andean parts of Southern America from Columbia to Argentina, the West Indies, Japan, China, southern Asia from India to Turkey and southern Europe to the Carpathian Mountains of Poland (McGranahan and Leslie,1990). The trees are large and tall with round headed canopy. The rather smooth, light coloured, large nuts are free of the hull at maturity. Shell thickness varies from paper–thin to very thick and hard. The Greeks probably obtained J. regia from Persia from where, the seeds were transported to Rome, where they were known as Jovis Glans, or Jupiter’s acorn, from which comes Juglans. From Italy, it spreaded to what is now France, Spain, Portugal and southern Germany. Trees of the species were in England by 1562, and were bought to America by the earlier settelers. The American colonists are said to have called the species English walnut to distinguish it from the eastern black walnut, J. nigra. It is generally prefer to call it Persian walnut as it is associated with the place of origin bit commercially, it is called as English walnut. The term Carpathian walnut is sometimes used to refer to cold hardy Persian walnuts (Forde and McGranahan,1996). The other important species are J. ailantifolia Carr. syn. J. sieboldiana Maxim. (Japanese walnut), J. nigra L. (American black walnut), J. cinerea L. (butternut), J. microcarpa Berlander (Texus Black walnut), J. major Heller (Arizona black walnut), J. californica S. Wats (Southern California black walnut) and J. hindsii Jeps. (Northern California black walnut).

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004). This enables, farmers to produce vegetables in the off-season, when fresh produce usually fetches higher price in the market.

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as
per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004).

Insect pests cause huge losses ranging from 5 to 80% of even up to 100%. Acute food shortage following world war –II and Bengal famine (1943) due to failure of rice crop due to a paddy disease indicate the severity of the loss, caused by the pests and diseases. The insects in storage on an average consume and spoil an additional 4 million tones of grains every year. All this indicates the importance of plant protection by which we can save millions of tones of food grains which are otherwise eaten away by different pests. Losses due to insect pests in Indian agriculture are 23.3 per cent. One of the practical means of increasing crop production is to minimize the pest associated losses.

A pest is any organism which occurs in large numbers and conflict with man’s welfare, convenience and profit.

Pests are often controlled with man made chemicals which have many harmful effects, for example:

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum spp.), popularly known as “mum” or “guldaudi”, is a major commercial ornamental plant grown for cut flowers, loose flowers, and garden display. Belonging to the family Asteraceae, it is valued for its vibrant colors, diverse flower shapes, and long vase life. Chrysanthemum is attacked by several insect and mite pests, affecting both foliage and floral quality, leading to reduced aesthetic and commercial value.
Distribution: Widely distributed in India wherever chrysanthemum and sunflower are grown.
Biology: The eggs are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves, obliquely inserted into the tissue, with opercula appearing as whitish or brown dots. The incubation period for the eggs lasts about 5 to 7 weeks. Following hatching, the nymphs undergo hemimetabolous development (no true pupal stage). The nymphal period spans 2 to 3 weeks, during which the nymphs moult five times before reaching adulthood. Adult insects are approximately 4 mm long, with blackish bodies and lace-like transparent wings (Rizkawati et al., 2023).

Use of insect-resistant varieties in integrated pest management is an economically and ecologically sound alternative to synthetic pesticides. A large number of germplasm lines of different fruit crops have been evaluated for resistance to pests, and a few genotypes with resistance to insects, mites and nematodes have been identified. The resistance of “Winter Majetin” apple variety against woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) was the first report of innate resistance to insect pests in fruit crops. Another successful example was the resistance to grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch), in which the susceptible European scions (Vitis vinifera) were grafted onto the resistant American rootstocks (Vitis labrusca) in late 1800s. Various leaf characteristics, such as hairiness, pubescence, thickness of veins, sponginess, stomatal density and fruit characteristics such as rough skin, have been reported to confer resistance to insect pests. High content of phenols, flavonols, potassium, calcium, and low carbohydrate and nitrogen contents have also been reported to confer insect resistance in various fruit plants. The germplasm has been screened against various pests under natural as well as artificial infestations. In apple, rootstocks (MM-series) resistant to woolly apple aphid have been developed. Molecular markers for three genes that confer woolly apple aphid resistance are located on two linkage groups (LG). Low infestation of the woolly apple aphid has also been recorded in Golden Delicious variety which incidentally is the most preferred host of apple fruit moth. The scab resistant apple selections, HCR21T200, HCR23T125, S80ER21T72 and TSR16T223 have also been found to be resistant to the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch). Peach varieties such as Flaming Gold, Stark Early Giant, Early White Giant and Flavour Crest are moderately susceptible to the peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.). Peach cultivar, Matchless has been reported tolerant to flat headed stem borer, Sphenoptera lafertei Thomson. Early maturing varieties of peach are reported to escape the fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) damage while Nemaguard, and Nemared rootstocks are resistant to important nematode pests. Almond varieties, Briggs Hard Shell, Katha 85, Ribba Selection and Tree No. 55 have been reported free from peach curl aphid infestation.

2.1. Guidelines for Pest Risk Analysis

This standard describes the process of pest risk analysis for plant pests for the purpose of preparing phytosanitary regulations by National Plant Protection Organizations. Pest risk analysis (PRA) consists of three stages: initiating the process for analyzing risk, assessing pest risk, and managing pest risk.

Initiating the process involves identification of pests or pathways for which the PRA is needed. Pest risk assessment determines whether each pest identified as such, or associated with a pathway, is a quarantine pest, characterized in terms of likelihood of entry, establishment, spread and economic importance. Pest risk management involves developing, evaluating, comparing and selecting options for reducing the risk.

PRA is only meaningful in relation to a defined “PRA area” considered to be at risk. This is usually a country, but can also be an area within a country, or an area covering all or parts of several countries [e.g. the area covered by a Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO)].

8.1 Pest Risk Analysis

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) is a form of risk analysis conducted by regulatory plant health authorities to identify the appropriate phytosanitary measures required to protect plant resources against new or emerging pests and regulated pests of plants or plant products. Specifically pest risk analysis is a term used within the International Plant Protection Conventions (IPPC) (Article 2.1) and is defined within the glossary of phytosanitary terms as “the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it. In a phytosanitary context, the term plant pest, or simply pest, refers to any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products and includes plant pathogenic fungi, bacteria, fungus-like organisms, viruses, nematodes and virus like organisms as well as insects, mites and weeds.

ABSTRACT

A methodology for depiction of Brown Plant Hopper (BPH) pest incidence on rabi rice crop using Remote Sensing (RS) data was attempted. The reflectance and geographically registered RS images of Feb.12, Mar.13, and April 30, 2009  as well as Feb.23 and March 14, 2007 were used to classify the Godavari district for generation of rabi rice crop area map. The rice crop map thus generated was used as an overlaying layer of rice crop mask in GIS to derive other RS based indices described below over this crop mask. Land Surface Temperature (LST) data product for rice growing areas was generated using rice crop mask. Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI), Temperature Vegetation Dryness Index (TVDI) onices derived from MODIS data and NDWI from AWiFS data were correlated with pest count data for two years 2007 and 2009.

The tropical fruit guava is prone to a number of diseases, pests, and disorders. Aphids, fruit flies, and scale insects are common pests; on the other hand, pathogens, such as bacteria and fungus, can cause illnesses like wilt and anthracnose. Deficiencies in some nutrients can occur and have an impact on the general health of plants. For effective control, integrated pest management must be put into practise along with routine inspections and prompt treatments. Maintaining a healthy guava crop involves disease-resistant cultivars, balanced fertilisation, and good orchard cleanliness. A vigorous guava crop is ensured by minimising the influence of diseases disorders, and pests via vigilant and preventative methods.
10.1 Weed control
Weeds should be kept under control throughout the year because fruit harvesting is done throughout the year, for the easy mobility of labour. For this purpose, spray Gramoxone @ 6ml/litre of water during March, July and September. To control perennial weeds in March, spray may be done with Round up (Glyphosate) @ 10 ml/litre. Spray of these weedicides should be carried out on a calm day to avoid the damage to guava foliage.
10.2 Insect pests
10.2.1 Fruit fly
Fruit fly, the serious threat to guava production particularly during rainy season, lays eggs singly in ripened fruits just below the epicarp which eventually results in appearance of minute depression with dark punctures. Maggots after hatching feed on pulp and make fruit unfit for consumption. They pupate in soil and takes about 12 to 18 days to complete its life cycle during July- August (main season).

The term “plant pest”, mainly applied to insect micropredators of plants, has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products. Worldwide, agricultural pest impacts are increased by higher degrees of interconnectedness. This is due to the increased risk that any particular pest problem anywhere in the world (as a system) will propagate across the entire system.

Synnoyms : Pseudorinderpest, Goat plaque, Goat catarrhal fever

It is a severe rinderpest like disease of small ruminants viz., sheep, goat and wild ruminants characterized by pyrexia, catarrhal inflammation of ocular and nasal mucous membrane, erosive stomatitis, enteritis and pneumonia. The disease is also called goat plaque, kata, pseudorinderpest and  stomatitis pneumo-enteritis complex. The current and standard name of the disease was chosen by the International Workshop of the disease in Ibadan, Nigeria, 1980.

Introduction 

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture we have reached to such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

In agricultural practices pesticide application is an inevitable factor for maintaining high crop productivity and is currently an integral part of modern farming. Pests (insects, microbes and weeds) cause approximately 20-30% loss in crop production so making pesticide use indispensable for crop protection.
 
Pesticide : A pesticide may be defined as ‘any agent or chemical or a mixture of chemicals/ substances intended to prevent, destroy, repel or irritate one or more pest populations causing economic loss in crop production’. Worldwide more than 450 active pesticide chemicals formulated into more than 10,000 commercial products are currently used by farmers. The most worrying aspect is that about two-third of the 800 chemicals tested so far have been found involved in causing or promoting tumor in rodents. Yet more than 50,000 synthetic chemicals/formulations remain untested so far.

Definition

Adjuvants are chemicals incorporated in a pesticide formulation or added to the tank mix, to increase effectiveness and safety. They generally have no effect on pests in themselves.

The Effectiveness of a Pesticide in Controlling a Disease and Pest Depends on

Using the right pesticide for the target disease & pest.

Applying the pesticide at the right time.

Applying the pesticide in the right amount.

Applying the pesticide to the right place.

Pesticide Formulation

Pesticide formulation is the process by which the pesticide is put into a form which can be easily produced, stored, transported and applied by practical methods in order to achieve a safe, convenient economic and effective method of pest control.

When a pesticide active ingredient (a.i) is manufactured, it is not in a usable form as it may not mix well with water or may be unstable. Therefore, it is mixed with other compounds to improve its effectiveness, safety, handling and storage. These other compounds can include solvents, mineral clays, stickers, wetting agents, or other adjuvant. The mixture of a.i. and inert (inactive) ingredients is called a pesticide formulation. Some formulations are premixed while others must be mixed before use. A single a.i. is often made into several formulations.

The label on the pesticide container is the principal source of information about a product. The label has all the fundamental information that is required. If you need information about a pesticide, do not rely on memory as it is very easy to make a mistake. Read the label every time before using a pesticide. The lay-out of the pesticide label varies between countries. However, every label on a pesticide container from a reputable manufacturer or source will have the following information:

The knowledge on the fate of pesticides, after application in the environment is useful to research workers associated with their safe and effective use. It is important to know whether a xenobioticwillpersist orwill be inactivated. Frequently persistence is desirable for sustained control. However, for many cases, rapid detoxificationof the compound may be required to avoid cumulative effects. Most of the pesticides are not very soluble in water andtheir oxidation orhydrolysis (or both)leads to formation of polar groups. Such reactions are called primary metabolic reactions, often, but not always. Theproducts ofthese primary reactions undergo secondary changes whereby they are conjugated with endogenous substances to form molecules that are more readily excreted. In higher animals, these changes facilitate the transportation of metabolites of pesticides in blood, which in turn leads to their eventual excretion.

A pesticide may be referred to by several different names, which can cause confusion. The same pesticide may be referred to by a number of different names, or different pesticides may have similar names.

Key Points

• When pesticides, which are chemicals used to manage a pest, impact non-target organisms like humans and animals, it's known as pesticide poisoning.

• Pesticides have the ability to contaminate the surrounding area and the ecosystem.

Introduction

Pesticides are chemical chemicals that are applied to destroy pests. These insecticides have the capacity to contaminate the surrounding area and the ecosystem. Pesticides can also be hazardous to a wide range of other creatures, including fish, birds, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, in addition to having a toxic effect on insects and weeds.

Etiology

Today's society faces several issues due to the overuse of pesticides in fields and food. Products may deteriorate if they are kept in partially filled containers for extended periods of time or exposed, whether intentionally or unintentionally, to high temperatures. It is dangerous to store chemicals anywhere other than their original container since the identification and label instructions are lost. These products can have severe effects on people or animals if they come into unintended touch with them. It can be extremely risky to mix substances or use them in unapproved combinations. In order to increase the efficacy of certain pesticide formulations, such as pyrethrins, pyrethroids, and d-limonene, piperonyl butoxide is added. It lessens the chemical's breakdown in the body of the insect or animal, but it also increases the pesticide's toxicity to both the pest and the host animal.

Pesticide Authorities

Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee

In India, the central pesticide board and registration committee oversee the import, production, sale, transportation, distribution, and use of insecticides. Pesticides in India are regulated by the following two government organisations Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee CIBRC and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI ).

Central Insecticide Board (CIB)

• The Central Insecticides Board advises the central and state governments on technical issues arising from the administration of this act, as well as carrying out the other tasks given to it by or under this act.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Principle

Acetone is used for extraction the most nonionic pesticide residue, and residue are partitioned from acetone to dichloromethane/hexane phase. After removing traces dichloromethane, final extract is made up with acetone. This extract can be determined by GC with selective detectors. Further for organochlorine and synthetic pyrethroids extract should be cleaned up using florisil column. And for determination organophosphate extract should undergo to charcoal-celite cleanup.

For the determination carbamates, the extract is subjected to C-18 solid phase cartridge clean up.

Principle

Pesticide residues in milk are derived from the intake of pesticide contaminated feed and fodder.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Principle

Pesticide residues are extracted from soil using a mixture of acetone/water in a soxhlet apparatus for 7-8 hours. This extract can be determined directly by GLC.

Scope: This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.