eChapters

Introduction
 
The relationship between insects and animals is complex. Insects are injurious to animals in myriad ways, whereas a few are beneficial. Some carry deadly disease germs and transfer them mechanically; others serve as necessary hosts of disease germs. Insects injure livestock by several ways like biting, crawling and scratching. Some burrow in the tissues, which become inflamed or are actually destroyed. Many insects are more or less specific to a host while others attack all kinds. Cattle tick, for example, attacks cattle, horses, mules, and sometimes sheep, but it is only to bovines that it transmits cattle tick fever. It is almost impossible to group insects in a list having the same characteristics, habits and methods of injuring livestock. The losses are found due to infection or infestation of ectoparasites on animals. The ectoparasites sucks blood which causes development of anaemia.They irritate the skin of the animals creating itching resultantly loss of hairs/ wools occur. Irritation may also leads to restless that adversely affect the appetite and water intake. Some ticks are responsible to transmit dreadful disease like Red water, Theileriosis, Anaplasmosis etc. Fleas act as intermediate host for some worms eg. Diphylidium caninum.They causes skin diseases like mange, Flea bite dermatitis, and cutaneous myiasis. Loss of body weight in all animals, drop in milk production in milch animals, decrease in meat production, retarded growth of young animals can transmit bacterial, viral, protozoal and rickettsial diseases. They decrease immune response to diseases. They causes annoyance and wry to the animals. The insect bites and blood sucking flies causes direct injury to the animals.

Introduction

Agroforestry offers both adaptation and mitigation options to climate change especially for the poor rural communities in the developing world. It is now getting ample attention from different investors, scientists, policy makers and international bodies due to its multiple benefits to the environment; and remain an important component of sustainable land use in agricultural production. Agroforestry provides economic, environmental, and social security to the vulnerable communities who are dependent on agricultural production for their livelihoods, and on forest/ trees for their energy requirement. Agricultual production is vulnerable to climate change, and there is a need to cushion these communities to be less vulnerable to climate change, or natural hazards. The suitable, sustainable and smart method is agroforestry based agriculture which offer host of ecosystem services to cope the vagaries of climate change, particularly in rural areas.

Climate change is a statistical variation in properties of the climate system that includes changes in global temperature, precipitation, etc due to natural or human drivers over a long period of time. It may affect distribution and quality of natural resources thereby influencing livelihood security of the people (Status of Indian Agriculture, 2013). Recent climate change activities is the increase in earth’s temperature by 0.74^ºC between 1906 to 2005 (IPCC 2007) due to increase in anthropogenic emissions of green house gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), ozone (O₃), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs). Increase in concentration of green house gases influence future climate as well as agriculture (Mall et al., 2006; IPCC, 2001; Aggarwal, 2003: Bhatia et al., 2004). For Indian region under South Asia, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007 projected a rise in temperature from 0.5-1.2^ºC by 2020, 0.88-3.16 oC by 2050, and 1.56 - 5.44^ºC by 2080. This may anticipate greater instability in agricultural production (Aggarwal, 2008). Beside this, climate change also affects the dynamics and frequency of extreme events like tropical cyclones, associated storm surges, and rainfall events. Low lying regions are more vulnerable to climate change as increase in temperature melt down the glaciers causing floods, submergence, and degradation of these regions. Therefore, there is a need for a ‘wake up call’ at this stage to aware farmers about the climate change, extreme weather events like hailstorm, heat and cold waves, drought, flash and river floods and landslides, and its affect on crop and agriculture, and strategies to overcome it.

Introduction

“Food insecurity is an enormous challenge at a global scale, with strong implications both for environmental management and for socio-economic development” (Rockstrom, 2003). This is exaggerated by persistent drought and uneven distribution of rainfall resulting in low crop yield. As the results, millions of lives are threatened with starvation caused by food shortages particularly in the arid and semi arid regions where majority of population still rely on rain-fed agriculture to secure food security (Ntsheme, 2005).

The majority of the affected population threatened with starvation resides in the rural areas with little or no income at all. It is projected that large number of population will be without food in coming years. This is exacerbated by slow economic growth and poor performance in the agricultural sector. It is likely that the increment of the food gap will occur in the near future intensifying the shortage of food in the region (Kundlande et al, 2004).

Introduction

Climate change and climate variability have become a reality. Recent climate changes have widespread impacts on human and natural systems including agriculture. According to Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). For example, it could show up as a change in climate normal (expected average values for temperature and precipitation) for a given place and time of year, from one decade to the next. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. In last 130 years (1880-2012), the global averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature has increased by 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C (IPCC, 2014). This increase in temperature is disturbing global climate system as a result we are observing climate change on entire continent. IPCC has projected the temperature increase between 1.1 °C and 6.4 °C by the end of the 21st Century (IPCC, 2007).

Heat or thermal stress occurs when it becomes increasingly difficult for dairy cow to maintain a normal core body temperature of 101.5 to 102.8° F (rectal temp.). The thermo neutral or comfort zone (TNZ) for cow is at an environmental temperature of 41 to 77° F. Within the TNZ, heat production from normal metabolic functions is about equal to the heat loss from the body and maintaining a normal body temperature is relatively easy. Extent of heat stress can be measured by the Temperature Humidity Index (THI). A THI level above 75 is considered stressful for dairy animals. Two sources of heat impact the cow as the environmental temperature and the heat produced internally from basal nutrient metabolism. Heat produced from nutrient metabolism is a lesser factor than environmental heat sources. However, as milk production and feed intake increase, more heat from nutrient metabolism is produced aggravating any heat stress being incurred from environmental sources. Therefore, higher milk producing cow will be more affected by heat stress than low milk producing or dry cow. 

The Fourth Assessment Report of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), after analysis of more than 6000 peer reviewed publications has assessed potential effects of changing climate on various spheres of life (Solomon et al., 2007). Under different scenarios, the estimated temperature rise of 1.1 to 6.4 °C in the global surface temperature is predicted at the end of 21st century (period 2090-2099 relative to 1980-1999). Global average sea level in the last interglacial period (about 125,000 years ago) was likely 4 to 6 m higher than during the 20th century, mainly due to the melting of ice in the polar regions. It has been detected in changes of surface and atmospheric temperatures in the upper several hundred metres of the ocean, and in contributions to sea level rise (Solomon et al., 2007). The change in climate is concurrent with the changes in global levels of carbondioxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen etc, loss of biodiversity, natural habitat and other natural resources. The IPCC report also estimates a confidence level of 90% that there will be more frequent warm spells, heat waves and heavy rainfall and a confidence level of 66% that there will be an increase in drought, tropical cyclones and extreme high tides. The magnitude of the events will vary depending on the geographic zones of the World (Solomon et al., 2007).

The demand for agricultural and livestock products is rising and the challenge to feed 8 billion people in 2020 is considerably enormous. Further, it is also hard to imagine meeting 2050-projected demand by raising twice as many poultry, 78% more small ruminants, 58% more cattle and 37% more pigs, without further damaging natural resources (Rivera and Lopez, 2012). Hence, sustainable development based on balance of ecology, economics, norms and values are to be considered at various levels of the scale: between food and farming systems, regions, nations and continents (Zipp, 2003). The food systems encompass activities related to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food; and the outcomes of these activities contributing to food security (Fig. 14.1).The interactions between and within bio-geo-physical and human environments influence both the activities and the outcomes.

Abstract

Soil acidity poses a great problem for crop production due to very poor fertility status and nutrient imbalances in eastern and north eastern region and hence, it needs a special attention to address such acidity problems in relation to crop production. The integrated nutrient management system for the maintenance of soil fertility, sustainable agricultural productivity and improving profitability through the judicious and efficient use of mineral fertilizers especially secondary and micronutrients, organic matters, green manures, bio-fertilizers in acid soils. Rainwater harvesting, efficient storage of excess rainwater and subsequent uses as supplemental irrigation especially in the areas of rainfed situations as well as selection of crops and cropping systems in different acid soils region need to be developed. The management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils can be made either by the addition of cost-effective lime or liming materials to counteract the abnormalities of soils by raising pH as the first step and subsequently by modifying agricultural practices and applying balanced fertilizers including limiting nutrients viz. S, B, Mo and Zn at optimal levels based on soil test values for maximum crop production.

Abstract

Never ending additional need of farmers have forced them to grow more cash crop along with crops used for the staple food. The prime crops as per the food habit, social need has to be produced in the respective locality. The micro planning for agricultural and food production has to be planned for different blocks of a district to meet above needs. The production planning has to be simulated first and programmed for trial production. After successful trail, the same has to be replicated in larger area. Mathematical model development approach is one of the solutions to predict the need of the people and plan production depending on the availability of the input materials like natural resources and other inputs. In addition to this food and nutrient security for the people living in those different areas are very important in present context. Global population is growing fast with 1.2% per annum. Feeding these people increases the responsibility of farmers for growing more crops without considering the soil health. Improper crop sequencing has resulted in imbalance in soil nutrient which results in unsustainable production of forth coming crops. 

Abstract
 
The word “sustain” is derived from the Latin verb ‘sustinere’(to keep in existence or maintain) and implies long-term support or permanence. The accepted definition of sustainable agriculture has proved to be elusive, given the extraordinary diversity and complexity of agricultural land use, and the perspective taken including producers, consumers, policy makers and workforces. Sustainable agriculture is defined as ‘the ability of farmland to produce food grain and other agricultural products to satisfy human needs indefinitely as well as having sustainable impacts on the broader environment and maintained equilibrium in productivity level’. That in other words, requires agriculture to avoid severe or irreversible damage to the endogenous or external ecosystem services upon which it depends, notably soil fertility, irrigation water, genetic variability and pollinating agencies and have acceptable impacts on the broader environment under the environmental stewardship.

Abstract 

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world . India ranks 1st among the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) & value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production & offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified .Scarcity of water resources and growing ofm competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scare area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient & effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving ,irrigation method, deficit irrigation, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system etc) and agronomic & soil manipulation (seed priming\ seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. 

Introduction : Need to Change

During the era of Green Revolution, India remarkably achieved self-sufficiency in food production with the introduction of high-yielding varieties, extension in the irrigated cultivable land, high use of chemical fertilizer such as Urea and other sources of NPK fertilizers and increase in cropping intensity.During these processes, relative contribution of organic manures as a source of plant nutrients declined substantially. Due to heavy application of chemical pesticides an increase in resistance of insect pests has also been noticed for most of the regular used plant protection chemicals. Health hazards associated with intensive modern agriculture, such as pesticides residues in food products and groundwater contamination are matter of concern. In the progress of green revolution technologies and chemical dependent nutrient management has declined the overall productive capacity of the soil due to no judicious fertilizer use. Such concerns and problems faced by modern-day agriculture gave birth to new concepts in farming, such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, donothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. The essential feature of such farming practices imply, i.e., back to nature.

Abstract

Plant architecture, plays a crucial role in gathering multiple resources from the environment. As a plant grows, they change its architecture with the surrounding environment for altering available resources. The architecture of the plant is modified through the distribution of assimilate, which conclude the growth rates of different organs. Plant roots expand to acquire soil water and nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus) from different soil layers by adjusting their direction in order to growth which transported and allocated to whole plant for maintenance and expansion of plant organs. All plants gradually develop their architecture according to source–sink activities and endogenous signals. This adaptation can result in complex structures. This chapter deals with the importance, different method for changing the architecture   of vegetable crops for improving their yield and quality.

Abstract

Being a great nutrient rich fruit, Dragon fruit has fetched a worldwide attention already and started to emerge as an important cash crop in global market. But the fine tuning between the scheduling of supply and market demand is greatly influenced by postharvest management and storage techniques of the fruit as the fruit has a short storage life. In this review, effect of diversified storage and packaging techniques on the different post harvest quality of fruits viz. fruit firmness, skin colour, its nutritional quality and susceptibility to disease pest during storage is investigated. And it was seen that various alternative and innovative modern techniques such as introduction of  plastic film, plastic crate packaging, modified atmospheric storage, different chemical application and application of edible chitosan coating are proven as effective to extent the durability of storage that widen the room for transport and marketing. Finally it can be said that the advantage of growth in dragon fruit consumption and marketing can be more harnessed through understanding the missing links between harvest and post-harvest handlings and integrating the traditional and modern postharvest approaches.

Introduction

Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) occupies an important position among commercial ornamental bulbous crops, because of its highly fragrant flowers which can be used in various ways and is essentially a florists flower. The white tubular flowers emit the most popular odour and hence are cultivated on a large scale in some parts of the world for the extraction of its highly valued natural flower oil. The lingering delightful fragrance and excellent keeping quality are the predominant characteristics of this crop. It is popularly known as Rajanigandha, derives its generic name from the greek word Polios, which means white or shinning and anthos meaning a semi perennial bulbous plant. It is commercially cultivated for cut flowers and loose flowers trade and also for extraction of its highly valued natural flower oil. The serene beauty of the flower spikes, bright white flowers, sweetness of blooms and delicacy of fragrance of this ornamental crop, transform the entire area into a nectarine and joyous one. Fresh flowers and value added products of tuberose are exported from India to USA, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, The Netherland, Japan, United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.

1    General line of treatment of poisoning in animals

2    Systemic antidotes-dosage and method of treatment large animals

3    Small animals

4    Plant toxins

5    Zoo toxins

Abstract

Development of vermicomposting technology in India was started in seventies, but except some areas of South India it has not been popularized among common masses. This technology is labour intensive and needs attention to handle the tiny earthworms in a proper manner. Sincerity and dedication bring success while casual attitude ends up in financial loss. Lack of proper knowledge on suitable technique, unawareness about nutrient and hygienic standards of vermicompost, non availability of suitable earthworms, lack of marketing and training facility are some major problems in non-flourishing this technology in rural areas. But this technology being simple and easy to follow, is gradually becoming a boon to the low educated poor unemployed youths of the society for their economic development through generating income and creating self employment. Vermicompost, vermi-T and earthworms are marketable product. Government agencies and Non Government Organizations are trying to popularize this technology which has bright prospect to maintain health and hygiene of human to environment.

Introduction

Animal husbandry has always been an integral part of Indian civilization and our country possesses rich biodiversity of animal genetic resources, which are spread over diverse agro-climatic regions. These resources have been developed by our ancestors over several generations and have acquired special attributes like remarkable adaptability to environment, management conditions and genetic resistance to most tropical diseases besides survival on poor quality of feed and fodder. In spite of multiple threats of change, replacement, degradation and extinction, this biodiversity of farm animals comprises of 30 well-described breeds of cattle, 10 of buffaloes, 20 of goats, 40 of sheep, 8 of camel, 6 of horses, 20 of poultry besides large number of variants of native ponies, pig, donkey, yak and mithun. This mega-diversity is not accidental, nor it is purely natural, rather, it is the outcome of thousands of years of deliberate selection and planned exposure to a range of natural conditions. The description of various breeds of most economically important species of livestock viz. cattle, buffalo, goat and sheep and their genetic improvement is as follows:

A. Answer the following question:

1.    What is carbohydrate?

Ans: Literally means hydrates of carbon. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy (more than one OH group) aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketoneas in monosachharides; their olymers as in oligo and polysaccharides; their reduction products as polyhydric alcohols; oxidation products as aldonic, uronic, sacharic acid; substitution products as amino sugars.

2.    What is sugar?

Ans: The term sugar is generally restricted to those carbohydrates containing less than 10 monosaccharide residues.

3.    What is dextrin?

Ans: It is the intermediate products of the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen.

4.    What is exergonic reaction?

Ans: That portion of energy change during a reaction which is available to do work is termed the free energy change, designated, “G. when “Gis negative the reaction is said to be exergonic.

5.    What is substrate level phosphorylation?

Ans: Whenproductionof ATPfromADPtakesplacedirectlyduring a reaction, the process is known as substrate level phosphorylation.

6.    Why carbohydrate is a metabolically essential?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why vitamin Ais called anti-infective vitamin?

Ans: Vitamin A is concerned with the synthesis of muco-polysaccharides distributed throughout the body as in respiratory tract,alimentary tract,reproductive tract,genitor-urinarytractetc. In thedeficiencyof vitaminA,theepithelium lining of these tracts becomes keratinized with the result that it becomes prone to infection. That’s why it is also called as anti-infective vitamin.

2.    Why ducks are less effective than chickens in converting tryptophan to niacin?

Ans: Ducks have a 3-4 folds higher level of picolinic acid carboxylase than chicken which enzyme converts the tryptophanto picolinic acid instead of niacin.

3.    Whyvitamin Cis dietaryessential tohumans, monkey, guinea pigs?

Ans: In these species, due to lack of L-gulonolactone oxidase enzyme which is required for synthesis of vitamin C (from 6 carbon sugars like glucose/ galactose in liver or kidney),they can not synthesize their own requirement in their bodies.

4.    What is vitamin?

Introduction

The nucleic acids are the molecular depots that are responsible for continuity of life by transfer of hereditary information from one generation to next. The sequence of nitrogenous bases containing programmed instruction determines the structure of every cell constituent and eventually every protein. In 1869, Friedrich Miescher, Swiss chemist, isolated an unknown phosphate-rich substance from pus cells named as nuclein, which was quite different from other organic substances like carbohydrate, protein, and fat. Altmann in 1899 ascertained that the nuclein also had some acidic characteristics and changed its name to ‘nucleic acid’. Later, nucleic acid was also isolated from salmon sperm nuclei as DNA-protaminecomplex. In 1953, James D.Watson and Francis H.C. Crick constructed the model of three-dimensional double helix structure of the DNA molecule which could successfully explain DNA replication.

Introduction

Nutritive value of any food indicates the calories content as well as quality attributes. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins provide energy by4-9-4 rule. It meanstheyprovide 4,9 and 4 kcal/genergy, respectively, when oxidized completely. Though micronutrientssuch as vitaminsandminerals do not provide any calories, they are essential for the enzymatic activity and metabolic reactions.

ATP or energy is measured in terms of ‘calories’ or ‘joule’. One calorie is the amount of heat required by 1g of water to increase its temperature from 14.5 to 15.5°C under standard conditions. Nutritive value of any food can be measured on shelf usingcalorimeter, in which food is completelyoxidized under specified conditions and converted into CO₂ and water.

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry research and development in scientific mode in India started about thirty years ago with few individual scientists working on the aspect. However, concentrated efforts started with the establishment of a network under co-ordinated mode throughout the country in the year 1983. Since then lot of research has been done and recommendations made. The present paper compiles the chronological sequences of the starting of AICRP on AF along with its co-ordinating partners. Suitable perennial species and agroforestry systems recommended for respective agroclimatic zones of the country are also compiled. National seminars and group meeting conducted for popularizing and extending agroforestry to every corner of the country had also been provided.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is an age old practice and was a way of life since the settled agriculture evolved from forest. However, with passage of time the cropping system was converted to monocropping and in the way the benefits of integrating the perennials with annuals were forgotten. In the late 70’s of 20^th century, benefits of integrating perennials in cropping system was again realized and efforts were diverted towards scientifically associating the perennials and annuals. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan an eminent scientist while addressing first agroforestry seminar at Imphal in 1979 stated that agroforestry lies the key solution of some of the problems of forestry “what is now important is to give a scientific context and better planning like a good architect who can plan the use of space more efficiently”. This seminar was a spark in the history of scientific agroforestry in India. Taking into account the vide variation in edaphic and climatic factors in India along with the perennial nature of the systems, it was felt that working in isolation would not yield fruitful results and therefore, an association of scientist and institutes of different agroclimatic regions in form of a network was felt imperative and a viable wayout and hence the birth of AICRP on Agroforestry. All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was initiated vide ICAR letter number 21(1)/80-SW & DF dated 7^th February, 1983 at 20 centers of which 12 centers were located in State Agricultural Universities and eight at the ICAR institutes. Later on more co-ordinating centers were added and at present there are 37 AICRPAF co-ordinating centers with 10 centers in ICAR institutes and 27 centers located in State Agriculture Universities covering all the major agroecological zones of the country. The coordinating unit of the project was initially located at ICAR, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, which was shifted to National Research Center for Agroforestry, Jhansi w.e.f. 1^st April, 1997 under the administrative control of Director, NRCAF.

ABSTRACT

Mizoram is predominantly a hilly state where people have been practicing agroforestry in a variety of forms from traditional shifting (jhum) cultivation to the most scientific-induced agroforestry models. However, ‘jhum’ still remains the main form of land use even though it is known to cause severe soil, water and biodiversity erosion and low crop productivity. The induced agroforestry practices carried out in Miozram have the ability to replace shifting cultivation but these systems again are not properly designed to tackle various biophysical, socio-cultural and economic need of the people, resulting in their poor acceptability. The paper reviews various agroforestry systems prevailing in Mizoram and details some ongoing agroforestry research trials in the State.

ABSTRACT

Arunachal Pradesh, the largest state of North-East India is unique state of the country in the sense that its altitude range between 70 – 7000 m, have 26 major tribes besides 110 sub-tribes, have 82 per cent of its land under forest and most of the area is under the control of local tribes which practice shifting cultivation. The paper presents the potentialities of agroforestry in Arunachal Pradesh. The different agroforestry systems prevailing in the state are also given in detail. Agroforestry systems which are scientifically tested and the direction in which research are to be done in future to extend agroforestry has also been presented.

INTRODUCTION

Indian Eastern Himalaya, covers the states of Assam, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya (Kukreti, 2000). The erstwhile North East Frontier Agency, now Arunachal Pradesh, the largest state among the North-eastern states of India lies at latitude 26°28’-29°30 N and longitude 91°30’- 97°30 E with a geographical area of 83,743 km². The human population of the state is 10,91,113 (GOI, 2002). The recorded forest area in the state is 68602 km² which is 82.0 per cent of the geographical area of Arunachal Pradesh (Kukreti, 2000). The forest cover in the state forms the highest amongst all the states of the country and state is least densely populated. The state is bounded by Bhutan to the west, Myanmar to the east, China to the north and north east, and the plains of Assam to the south. There are 26 major tribes and 110 sub tribes which inhabit different parts of the state, with a life style totally dependent on the forest resources. Moreover, almost all the major tribes and sub tribes has been practicing shifting cultivation from the ancient time in this region which is integral part of sociocultural life of the tribal people.

“Small is beautiful”, today we know that small is not only beautiful but also powerful. With the range of applications that nanoparticles find in varied fields of engineering and science, nanoparticles seem a promising option when compared to the conventional materials used. Nanoparticles are particles that have at least one dimension in less than 100nm range. They have a high surface to volume ratio and thus mass transfer and heat transfer properties are better than bulk materials. Recently; core/shell nanoparticles are finding widespread application. There is a class of core/shell nanoparticle that has its entire constituent in the nanometer range. Core/shell nanoparticles are nanostructures that have core made of a material coated with another material. They are in the size range of 20nm-200nm. Also, composite structures with these core/shell particles embedded in a matrix material are in use. The necessity to shift to core/shell nanoparticles is the improvement in the properties. Taking into consideration the size of the nanoparticles, the shell material can be chosen such that the agglomeration of particle can be prevented. This implies that the monodispersity of the particles can be improved. The core/shell structure enhances the thermal and chemical stability of the nanoparticles, improves solubility, makes them less cytotoxic and allows conjugation of other molecules to these particles. The shell can also prevent the oxidation of the core material. “When a core nanoparticle is coated with a polymeric layer or an inorganic layer like silicabecausethe polymeric orinorganiclayerwould endow the hybrid structure with an additional function/property on top of the function/property of the core hence synergistically emerged functions can be envisioned”.

Housing constitutes the second largest component of cost of poultry production. An ideally located and well planned poultry farm is an essential requirement for efficient egg and meat production. Poultry housing normally serves the following major functions:

Provides shelter and protection to the birds

Provides comfort to the birds.

Helps in organization of large flock into a manageable unit.

Breeder management includes pure line management, parent stock management, and grandparent stock management depending on the context. Except for small variations in management among these stocks basics are common within layer breeder stocks and broiler breeder stocks. The main objective of the breeder management is to produce more fertile eggs per pullet and increasing the hatchability by hygienic handling of these fertile eggs.

Location of the breeder farm

Location of the breeder farm should be away from commercial poultry farms in order to prevent the spread of diseases between the flocks. However, they must be in close vicinity of the city/town to have a good transport facility and other amenities such as water, electricity and availability of labour.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

The word hypothesis is made up of two words Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem.

The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena under observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and action in the research for new truth.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Researchers interested in taking up research have initial difficultes in picking up a problem worth for investigation. At time they waste considérable amount of time in just thinking about the pros and cons of problems suggested by some ones or identified by himself/herself. It is basically due to misunderstanding about "what is research". Usual notion about research is that it must resuit in something spectacular or it must come up with a new discovery or theory. It must be pointed out that a study which brings forward new facts, or which demolishes or establishes a hypothesis or a theory or principal already in vogue, or which puts a variety of information in to order or system, or which prepares ground for further research is as valid as one which ends with a new discovery. The best research problem for researcher is one which arises from the researcher's own curiosity. The only thing is that researcher must know the tools which can handle the problems he proposed to take up. Before choosing for a problem for research one should as question to himself: is this problem really of interest to me?; Is it significant in the sense that it extends the frontiers of knowledge or fills an important gap in knowledge?; Can I handle this problem within the constraints of resources of money, time etc?; has this problem not been investigated by someone else? A good research proposai describes situation of problem, problem area, justification, methodology adopted for data collection, analysis, expected results and institution/ organisation that may use the outcome.

DNA replication. The double helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template. Bases are matched to synthesize the new partner strands.

DNA replication, the basis for biological inheritance, is a fundamental process occurring in all living organisms to copy their DNA. This process is “replication” in that each strand of the original double-stranded DNA molecule serves as template for the reproduction of the complementary strand. Therefore, following DNA replication, two identical DNA molecules have been produced from a single double-stranded DNA molecule. Cellular proofreading and error toe-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.

In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations in the genome, called “origins”.

Unwinding of DNA at the origin, and synthesis of new strands, forms a replication fork. In addition to DNA polymerase, the enzyme that synthesizes the new DNA by adding nucleotides matched to the template strand, a number of other proteins are associated with the fork and assist in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis.

5.1 Introduction

In recent decades, human induced changes in climate of the earth have the focus of scientific and social attention. The most imminent of this is the increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) namely, carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the atmosphere. The concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased markedly by 30%, 145% and 15%, respectively as a result of human activity since 1750, the era of Industrial Revolutions (IPCC, 2007). Between 1750 and 2005, the concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere has increased from 280 to 379 ppm, 715 to 1774 ppb and from 270 to 319 ppb, respectively (IPCC, 2007). However, there was a steep increase during the recent years i.e. 70% increase of GHGs between 1970 and 2004.

7.1 Introduction

The current atmospheric CO₂ concentration is the highest during last 650,000 to 800,000 years (Luthi et al., 2008), and also probably in the last 20 million years (Pearson and Palmer, 2000). Since last two decades, it is increasing at a rate of about 2 ppm/yr with the current concentration of 389 ppm in 2010 (WMO, 2011). The current trend of energy use based on fossil fuel consumption may raise it to 900 - 1100 ppmby the end of 21^st century (Kiehl, 2011).

9.1 Introduction

Background increase in anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse gases, associated climate change and its global consequences are issues of concern. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (FAR) reveals that warming of the climate system is evident from the increase in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of ice and the rising global average sea level. The report states that the global mean temperature may increase between 1.4 and 5.8^oC by 2100, which will have severe impact on the global hydrological system, other ecosystems, the sea level, and agriculture. The impact could be particularly severe in tropical countries including India. Thus climate change is unavoidable and associated weather extremes such as high temperature and heat waves; increase frequency of droughts and high intensity rainfall causing flood are the issues of concern for Indian Agriculture.

10.1 Introduction

The IPCC predicts the global average surface temperature to increase by 1.4 – 5.8 ^oC by 2100 with the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration from 540-970 ppm over the same period. The atmospheric CO₂ concentration and temperature, both, showing a steep rise since last three decades and their impacts experienced across all sectors of agriculture. Serious concerns have been raised about the effects of global environmental change on community and ecosystem functioning. Climate change scenarios generated from General Circulation Models (GCM) with a doubling of atmospheric CO₂ predicted various extreme weather events viz., warming temperatures, increase in anti-cyclonic behaviour during the summer which may result in 20% increase in the precipitation, and long periods of drought between rain bearing storms.

3.1 Overview of the Global Carbon Market in Pre-Kyoto Protocol Phase

At the First COP in Berlin in 1995, the UNFCCC launched a pilot phase of projects to build experience and “learning by doing”. The pilot phase was termed Activities Implemented Jointly (http://unfccc.int/program/coop/aij/aij_np.html). Under the Activities Implemented Jointly, Annex I Parties could implement projects in other countries that reduced emission of greenhouse gases or enhanced removals of sinks. The number of projects registered under Activities Implemented Jointly has been growing since its launch and as of 2002 (the latest report available) there were 157 projects – 45 percent of which are in developing countries. The total amount of money invested by private sector companies as of 2000 was about $160 million. Because of the expectations that sink projects would be included as a mechanism for achieving targets, several pilot projects were voluntarily implemented involving mostly private sector entities (e.g., electric utility companies, oil companies and environmental non-governmental organisations). Between the beginning of 1996 and the end of 2003, 76 transactions involving carbon sequestration in the LULUCF sector were signed, representing 40 million tCO2-e. Relative to all of the carbon transactions that took place over the same period, sink projects accounted for 21 percent of the total number and 23 percent of the total volume. In volume terms, carbon sequestration projects were the single largest project category, and more than three-quarters of this volume was transacted between 1996 and 1999.

As a developing country, India does not have any emission reduction target, but it is able to sell CERs pursuant to the CDM, to large emitters covered by the EU ETS, countries that have emission reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol, or any other entity that wishes to purchase such CERs for compliance purposes. It can also supply ERs and VERs for the growing voluntary markets.

4.1 Status and Trends

India’s participation in the carbon markets has contributed to the recognition that it is a useful tool in attracting climate friendly investments. India was an early player in the market, and it used the hosting of the Eighth Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in Delhi in October 2002 to sensitize the business community about the opportunity provided by carbon finance and the modalities of the emerging CDM. In 2004, the growth in the Indian carbon market was fostered by a healthy number of indigenous management and technical consultants, which began to offer services to potential sellers of emission reductions, and the response from primarily the private sector to capacity building initiatives concerning the nascent market. In its capacity as the Designated National Authority (DNA) for the CDM, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) also had the foresight to develop simple and transparent rules, whereby project developers can obtain a Letter of Approval (LOA) theoretically within sixty days, which is a key step required for project registration. By the end of 2004, India was the market leader in the forward sale of emission reductions, with 50 % of the supply market. Early successes included the registration of two projects which consisted of the thermal oxidation of HFC-23 generated as a buy-product during the manufacturing of the refrigerant HCFC-22, but also a number of small scale co-generation projects using bagasse, rice husk and mustard crop residues as a source of biomass, and small scale hydropower projects.

11.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Some assumptions or guesses made about the unknown population parameters, is know as "Statistical hypothesis".

Q.2 For the normal distribution N(μ, σ²), the statement (1) μ = 25.0 and (ii) σ² = 37.0, are known as statistical hypotheses.

Q.3 Let p = 0.5 is the probability of getting a head in single throw of a coin. Ten, this statement is not a statistical hypothesis.

Q.4 The statistical hypothesis under consideration (under test), is known as "Null hypothesis".

Q.5 The null hypothesis is denoted by "Ho".

12.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Almost all biological data e.g. crop yield, plant height, seed weight, seed size, protein content in pulse, oil content in oil seed etc. are assumed to be normaly distributed.

Q.2 Let X be a normal variable with N(μ, σ²). The random variable Z def ned as Z = (x - μ)/σ, is known as standard normal variable.

Q.3 The standard normal variable Z is denoted as Z ~ N (0, 1).

Q.4 The p.d.f. of random variable Z is given as

14.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 If sample size n is small ie n < 30, then the small sample test is applicable.

Q.2 The exact sample test (small sample test) can be applied to large sample test but the converse is not plaussible.

Q.3 If (x²1 , x²2 ) are two independent chi-square variates with (V1, V₂) degree of freedom then F statistic is def ned as

Introduction

The science of hydrogeology is defined as hydrology with emphasis on geology. This chapter is to refresh your geology knowledge. The key words are highlighted to assist a quick review.

The Crust and its Composition

The thin outermost layer of the earth is called the crust and ranges in thickness from about 8 km under the oceans to about 25 km on land. It extends under both oceans and continents, and forms the source for all the soils, vegetation, and gases in the atmosphere.

The crust is primarily composed of two elements: silicon and oxygen which account for 75% of the earth’s crust. Note that these are the two elements found in quartz (e.g., sand), which suggests this is the most common of all minerals.

Introduction

Large scale exploitation of groundwater using modern deep well boring technology and powerful pumps is the order of the day in India and elsewhere. Increase in agriculture area and year around cultivation of water intensive crops, frequently failing monsoons (Fig.5.1) all have led to drying up of surface water and increased dependence on groundwater.

Thus, given the scenario of over exploitation of the available groundwater, it is essential that proper storage and management of available groundwater resources be identified.

Introduction

Wells are vertical shafts excavated or holes drilled in earth to the level of water table for extraction. Digging of wells is an age old practice. Shallow dug wells supported communities in the past. Well water is drawn to the ground manually or mechanically using variety of containers made of metal, leather, canvass and wood or a combination of them. Draught animals or electrical power are used to draw water for irrigation.

Water table (Fig.6.1) wells extend below the groundwater table and extract free water. Pumping water from these wells lowers the water level. The well first gains water from the water bearing material in its immediate proximity. Subsequently a cone of depression is formed in the immediate vicinity of the well. Water outside the cone of depression but with in the area of influence is diverted to replace the body of groundwater finding its way in to pumping well.

Introduction

The need for water for human consumption and the industry keeps spiraling up in the cities in the wake of rural diaspora and urban sprawl. Groundwater is exploited at an unsustainable rate leading to depletion of aquifers. Worse still is the intrusion of salt water from adjoining coast into the aquifers leading to total wastage of remaining water.

Introduction

Fresh water, a renewable but not an infinite resource, is becoming increasingly scarce. The amount available for use to the world today is almost the same as it was 4500 years ago but global demand has been increasing exponentially. Since 1950, the renewable supply per person has fallen 58 percent as world population has swelled from 2.5 billion to 6 billion. Moreover, unlike oil and most other strategic resources, fresh water has no substitute in most of its uses. It is essential for growing food, manufacturing goods, and safeguarding human health.

According to a World Policy Forum report, the largest and most combustible imbalance between population and available water supplies will be in Asia, where crop production depends heavily on irrigation. Asia today has roughly 60 percent of the world’s people but only 36 percent of the world’s renewable fresh water. China, India, Iran, and Pakistan are among the countries where a significant share of the irrigated land is now jeopardized by groundwater depletion, scarce river water, a fertility-sapping buildup of salts in the soil, or some combination of these factors. Groundwater depletion alone places 10 to 20 percent of grain production in both China and India at risk.

Abstract

Increased human activities such as agriculture, mining, and manufacturing have resulted in rapid increase of green house gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Atmospheric accumulation of the GHGs results into global warming and climate variability or change. Climate change due to enhanced greenhouse effect arising as a result of human activity is considered a major global environmental threat to mankind today. Perhaps nowhere in the globe are people more vulnerable to climate change than in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Most livelihoods in SSA are climate-sensitive due to over dependency on land and other natural resources and are thus perched on the brink of disaster due to climate change.

Climate change is now undoubtedly affecting millions of people across Africa and it actually threatens to wipe-out the past and current global efforts made to tackle poverty unless urgent and robust decisions and actions are taken. This is also a wake-up call for the world to adopt alternative development models that would ensure massive cuts in GHG emissions to avoid a potentially irreversible change. Scientists have warned that unless the global community, especially the developed countries, take genuine steps now to reduce their emissions; many more millions of people in the developing world will be negatively impacted by climate change.

Abstract

This chapter highlights the significance of irrigated desert agriculture as a prime cause of the settlement and welfare of nomads and the consequent reduction of conflicts over limited land resources. Um Jawaseer Desert Farm Project is located in Bayouda Desert, the Northern State about 200 km north of the capital Khartoum. The planning and management approaches of such irrigated projects were discussed with special emphasis on the participatory approach. In this respect the roles of the donor (NGO), traditional tribal institutions and the project beneficiaries were illustrated. The project beneficiaries were organized into the farmers, well and women committees. The environmental and socioeconomic impacts of the project were evaluated. The project maintained food security, improved nutritional status, hygiene, housing environment and assisted in the provision of primary education and basic health facilities. Cost/benefit analysis showed the high profitability of the project. Other positive impacts include conservation of the fragile environment and biodiversity and improvement of animal productivity. Consequently, the area which witnessed an out-migration, during the seventies and the eighties, due to drought and desertification is now experiencing incoming migration.

However, adaptation to the sedentary mode of life was a real challenge. The most striking benefits of the project was that of women training for the, involvement in the decision-making process and empowerment, since 20% of the land is allocated for women. In addition to that, problems like build up of salinity, sand encroachment, low organic matter content and increased susceptibility to some water-related diseases due to irrigation were tackled successfully.

Abstract

The desert environment is one of the most challenging environments for human habitation. Inhabitants have to deal with climatic factors such as high temperature, sandstorms, flash floods and lack of water due to low rainfall. The people of Saudi Arabian desert had developed various traditional adaptation approaches such as living in tents, wearing head dresses, settling close to source of water, using camel for transportation, irrigation farming and traditional land management (hema). In recent times, modern technologies for air conditioning, transportation and housing have replaced the traditional adaptation methods especially in the cities. The modern technologies have reduced the challenges faced by the traditional society but has thrown up new challenges to sustainability. The new issues include urban flooding, depletion of underground water, high energy demand and consumption and loss of natural habitat to urbanization. This chapter reviews the traditional and the modern adaptation techniques in Saudi Arabia especially in the urban areas. It examines the implication of the changes for urban sustainability and explores different approaches for reducing the negative impacts. The chapter also dwells on the role of geospatial techniques in adapting to the desert environment.

Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.) is one of the most nutritious tropical fruits, native to Southern Asia and especially Eastern India. Mango belongs to Anacardiaceae family and it was disseminated all over the world in the beginning of sixteenth century, and there are currently around thousand known varieties of mango. It is the dominant tropical fruit variety produced worldwide, followed by pineapple, papaya and avocado, all of which are considered as major tropical fruits. Global production of mango in 2015-16 was estimated to be about 44 million tons, accounting for nearly 50% of world tropical fruit production.

Mango is the most important fruit of India and is known as “King of fruits”. Mango is cultivated in 2,312 thousand ha and the production is around 15.03 million tons, contributing 40.48% of the total world production. Main mango producing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Total export of mangoes from India is 59.22 thousand tons, valuing Rs. 162.92 crores during 2015-16. India exports mango to over 40 countries worldwide. Major importing countries during 2015-16 were UAE, Bangladesh, UK, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Bahrain. Important mango varieties are Dashehari, Langra, Mallika, Amrapali, Bombay Green, Banganapalli, Totapuri, Neelam etc.