eChapters

Peri-parturient Health Care Periparturient period is defined as a period immediately around calving. It is the most critical time when high yielding cows are prone to nutritional deficits due to great metabolic alterations from dry to milking. Reduced feed intake and depressed immune system at this time make cows vulnerable to periparturient diseases affecting milk yield adversely and increasing mortality risk. Health care during this critical period aims at minimising deficits particularly in relation to dry matter intakes (DMI’s) and energy and mineral balance. •     Milk fever is the most common and important periparturient disease affecting high yielders. Due to the sudden onset of lactation, there is a huge demand for calcium resulting in dramatic decrease in blood calcium level during calving causing milk fever.

Herd A large number of animals that live and feed together in a group (Fig.197) is called as herd. In herd, all animals are considered as a unit rather than individual. Herd medicine, also known as herd health or production medicine, is the discipline of veterinary medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of the diseases in the herd as a whole. Concept and Significance of Herd Health Herd health is a combination of regularly scheduled veterinary activity and management practices undertaken to maintain optimum health to achieve optimum production in the farm. Traditionally, the aim of the herd health is to control or eliminate diseases and rectify management inefficiencies impacting the welfare and productivity in the frame work of risk monitoring and assessment in conjunction with best farming practices. The main emphasis

Endoscopy is a minimally invasive procedure that allows the clinician to look within a hollow organ or body cavity and obtain diagnostic information, which includes grossly evaluating an area of interest and obtaining tissue for histopathologic evaluation. Endoscopy is also used for therapeutic purpose and termed as interventional endoscopy. Endoscope An endoscope is basically consists of an insertion tube, hand piece and umbilical cord, Insertion tube -Encases the mechanism for image transmission. It consists of fiberoptic glass bundles (fiber-scope) or charge coupled device (CCD) chip (video endoscope), biopsy/suction channel, irrigation/insufflation channel and deflection control cables. Handpiece – It includes deflection control knobs,accessory channel entrance, irrigation/insufflation and suction valves.

Ultrasonography, popularly known as sonography, is a non-invasive, radiation free and safe medical procedure being increasingly used for the imaging different body organs/ structures for the diagnosis of various diseases not only in humans but also in farm, companion and exotic pets. The technique involves ultrasound unit, patient and doctor/veterinarian (trained in sonography). Ultrasound Unit Ultrasound unit has processor (central processing unit commonly known as CPU), transducers, key board, data storage and printer (Fig. 187). •     The CPU (central processing unit) is basically a computer having microprocessor, memory, amplifiers and power supplies for the microprocessor and transducer. The CPU transmits electrical currents to the transducer to emit sound waves, and receives the returning echoes. Returning echoes are processed to form the image on the monitor. The processed data and/or image are

Fluid therapy is a critical intervention in Veterinary Medicine, requiring careful assessment and monitoring to ensure effectiveness and to minimize risks. Tailor made individualized approach is essential for optimal outcome. Fluid Therapy in Small Animals Indications •     Most common indication for fluid therapy is correction of dehydration and resuscitation from shock, hypokalemia, and metabolic acidosis. •     Less common indication for fluid therapy is in cases of acid-base disturbances (metabolic alkalosis or mixed acid-base disturbance), specific correction of other electrolyte disturbances such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium. •     Other indication for fluid therapy is for the treatment of anemia and coagulopathies. Body fluid compartmentalization •     Total body water (TBW) in adults is approximately 60% of body weight. While young animals (neonates 80% and pediatrics 75%) contain more water. Water is located in separate yet

Blood transfusion is one of the crucial life-saving procedures in veterinary medicine undertaken to increase red cell mass, volume replacement, replenishing coagulation factors, and protein replacement. The concept of blood transfusion was first introduced by Francis Potter in 1639. However, it was only in 1666 that Richard Lower reported the first successful direct transfusion from one dog to another. Blood is a biological drug and is not a definitive treatment, but it provides support until the disease is diagnosed or treatment is initiated. Indications Blood transfusion is indicated for the management of the following conditions: •     Anemia due to various diseases/disorders, like infection or acute/ chronic hemorrhage •     Bleeding disorders such as thrombocytopenia or coagulopathies •     Rodenticide toxicities

The skin is the largest organ in the body. It not only defends the body but also assists in the maintenance of homeostasis including water conservation and in body temperature conservation through insulation and in heat loss through perspiration. Pain and temperature extremes are recognized through sensory nerves of the skin. The skin also provides protection against physical injuries to some level, supports hair growth and offers some defence against microbial invasion. Skin diseases are multifactorial in etiology. But the response of skin to varying etiological stimulus is limited leading to same clinical manifestations in different skin diseases. Therefore, a comprehensive clinical examination is necessary for accurate diagnosis of the disease. Clinical Examination The clinical examination of skin diseases involves a systemic approach including history, physical examination and diagnostic testing. History

Proper restraint and handling of laboratory and exotic pets reduces stress for both animal and examiner. Handling-related stress introduces a variable into experiments, so its minimizing is essential. Improper handling can lead to significant injuries for both animals and humans. Laboratory Animals General Care •     A healthy and regularly behaving animal is in a state of well-being. Maintaining the state of wellbeing requires effective health management and appropriate exercise. •     New animals on arrival should be quarantined, carefully examined, and placed in clean cages. Shipping containers should not enter the main facility and must be discarded. Proper identification and documentation of each animal, including details like origin and condition, is essential. Any sick animals should be euthanized immediately. •     Animals should be housed in separate rooms

Restraint Various techniques and equipment are employed to capture and restrain both zoo and free-ranging wild animals for physical examinations and medical treatment. The primary methods of restraint are physical and chemical restraint. Assessing the physical condition of the animal and determining the necessity of capture are essential, as all restraint methods can impact an animal’s behavior, physiology, and response to medication. Certain animals, such as black bucks, chinkaras, and deer, are particularly sensitive to restraint and prone to thermoregulatory issues, capture myopathy, and shock. In these species, even a routine capture can lead to injury or death. Terminology The following terminology is generally used during restraints of wild animals. Anesthesia: Causes unconscious with loss of awareness and pain relief. Analgesia: A state in which pain and sensation are effectively blocked.

The udder is responsible for milk production. It is composed of four mammary glands each with its own teat (Fig. 167). Swelling of udder or teats is an indication of udder disease warranting clinical exploration and palpation. Visual examination the udder (before and after milking) and palpation is of great significance in detecting abnormalities. The udder is visually inspected from back and sides for symmetry and also palpated thoroughly. Palpation is a simple, quick and easy routine diagnostic tool for mastitis detection. Teats and supra mammary lymph nodes should also be palpated. These examinations aid in detecting fibrosis, inflammation or atrophy. Diffuse fibrosis gives the quarter a firm feeling. Areas of local fibrosis may vary in size and shape. Hot, painful and diffuse swelling with marked abnormality of mammary secretion is seen in acute mammary inflammation (acute mastitis). Atrophy of the gland is the terminal stage of chronic mastitis. With the development of gangrene, the area becomes cold and bluish. Five point palpation scores (Petrovski et al., 2011; Hogan et al., 1995; Scaletti and Harmon, 2012)

Bone marrow is a soft, gelatinous tissue that fills the medullary cavities of bones. It plays a crucial role in the production of blood cells. It makes up about 3% of body mass in rats, 2% in dogs, and 5% in humans. Bone marrow develops in the embryo during the second trimester of pregnancy. This tissue is vital because it contains stem cells that can differentiate into various cell types. Bone marrow is of red and yellow types. In young mammals, the marrow is red and active (with minimal fat). With aging, accumulation of adipose tissue, and long bones transition turn bone marrow to yellow, fatty, inactive. In adult mammals, active hematopoiesis continues in flat bones, such as the sternum, ribs, pelvis, vertebrae, and skull, as well as the epiphyses of long bones. Erythropoiesis in these regions contributes significantly to red blood cell production, with the axial skeleton accounting for about 35% and the appendicular skeleton for 65%. In birds, hematopoiesis is mainly restricted to bone marrow, while in reptiles, it occurs in the bone marrow, spleen, liver, and thymus. Indications

Lameness in dairy animals is a serious health problem all over the world causing substantial economic losses to dairy industry owing to reduced milk production, reduced reproductive performance, cost of treatment including medicines, increased risk of culling, death, and the development of other diseases. Lameness can be defined as a state of being unable to walk properly because of pain in the limbs or foot. The incidence of lameness in the dairy herd is variable (1 to 50%) depending on the farm. In USA its incidence varies from 13 to 55% (Hoffman et al., 2014; Cook et al., 2016). Lameness may be due to diseases of limb and/or hoof of infectious and/or noninfectious origin. Lameness usually affects hind limbs because of greater load of the body on hind limbs. A lame animal adjusts gait and posture depending on the origin of the pain (foot or upper limb). Clinical signs of lameness include changes in locomotion (e.g. decreased speed, decreased stride, length and tracking, increased abduction,

Musculoskeletal system consists of muscles, cartilage, bones, joints ligaments and tendons. Primary function of the musculoskeletal system is to support the body, helps in mobility, and protects vital organs of the body. Diseases of these organs have clinical manifestations such as lameness, failure to support weight, inefficient joint movement and deformity. Examination of musculoskeletal system includes general as well as special examination. General examination consists of examination of posture in sitting/recumbency, standing position and while rising; examination of gait; and any other abnormality. General Examination The animal is observed for conformation (outline and shape), symmetry and posture in standing position from the cranial, caudal and lateral positions. Asymmetrical shape of the body or limbs may be due to swelling that should be examined by palpation,

Large Animals The collection and evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in farm animals with signs of diseases of nervous system provides very valuable diagnostic and prognostic information. Routinely, CSF is evaluated for total protein level, erythrocyte and leukocyte counts, and a differential cell count. Additional tests are available for specific neurologic conditions. CSF is primarily produced by the choroid plexuses in the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles through plasma ultra filtration and active transport across the blood-brain barrier. Smaller amounts of CSF are generated by the ependymal lining, pia arachnoid, meningeal blood vessels, and spinal cord’s central canal. The turnover rate is about 1% per minute, meaning systemic electrolyte or acid-base changes take several minutes to affect CSF

Eyes Anatomy The eye has following important structures. •     Choroid is the layer containing blood vessels that lines the back of the eye and is located between the retina and the sclera. •     Ciliary body is the structure containing muscle and is located behind the iris (that assist in focusing the lens). •     Cornea is the clear outer layer at the front of the eye that transmits and focuses (i.e., sharpness or clarity) light into the eye. •     Fovea is the depression in the inner retinal surface, the photoreceptor layer of which is entirely cones specialized for maximum visual acuity (sharp vision). •     Iris is the colored part of the eye regulating the amount of light entering the eye. In bright light,

The skin is the largest organ of the body that plays an important role in defending the body against minor physical injuries, providing some defense against microbial invasion, maintenance of homeostasis, water conservation, temperature conservation, supporting hair growth and heat loss. Changes in the secretion of sebaceous glands lead to compromised defence. Abnormalities of the skin may arise from specific skin disease or by the poor general health status. Therefore, a detailed clinical examination of the animal as a whole and of its skin in particular, is an essential part of the process of diagnosis. The skin has three main layers starting from outside as the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutis. The epidermis consists largely of epithelial cells and pigment. The dermis is a connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands. The inner most subcutis contains fibrous and fatty tissues that provides insulation and support. In healthy animals, the skin has considerable elasticity. It reduces in dehydration and inflammation / injury to skin. General clinical examination should be carried out first as a routine followed by special examination

Peritoneal Fluid Peritoneal fluid (PTF) is an ultra-filtrate of plasma. The amount of the fluid and its constituents depends on oncotic and hydrostatic pressures, vascular permeability, mesothelial lining integrity, and lymphatic drainage. In healthy animals, the amount of peritoneal fluid is negligible making its aspiration difficult. However, in large animals, a small volume (up to 5ml) can be aspirated. Volumes of 10ml or above may indicate a pathological process in the abdominal cavity, unless the animal is in late pregnancy. Indications for collection and analysis The collection and analysis of peritoneal fluid is important in the diagnosis of diseases of the peritoneum and the abdominal segment of alimentary tract .Increased accumulation of peritoneal fluid may be evident in congestive heart failure, peritonitis, nephrotic syndrome,

A neurological examination is an advanced and specialized clinical examination that is performed when there is suspicion of potential nervous system involvement. Before performing neurological examination a detailed history is essential. Neurological examination along with history not only helps in confirming whether the neurological problem is of primary or secondary origin but also aids in accurately identifying the location of the lesion. Common Terminology used in Neurology The following terms are commonly used in neurology. For a better understanding, common neurological terms with their definition are given below: •     Ataxia - An abnormal gait marked by lack of coordination, but without spasticity, weakness, or involuntary movements. Ataxia results from damage to the proprioceptive pathways, the vestibular system, or the cerebellum.

Large Ruminants Neurological examination of farm animals is an essential part of the physical examination, especially when there’s a suspicion of neurological disease. The examination begins with observing the animal’s gait and how it interacts with its surroundings. The main goal is to determine whether the neurological issue is primary (originating in the nervous system) or secondary (caused by something else) and to pinpoint where the problem is in the nervous system ( central nervous system -CNS or the peripheral nervous system –PNS ). When examining an animal, it is best to start with procedures that cause the least distress. Painful tests or more invasive checks should be done at the end of the examination.

Heart of bovine, caprine, equine, canine and feline is a four chambered organ having left and right atrium, left and right ventricles, mitral valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, pulmonary valve, arteries, arterioles, veins and venules. Heart starts its functioning even before birth and continues till death. Its pumping action helps in providing nutrients as well as oxygen to all organs and parts of the body and to remove the waste products of the metabolism from the different organs of the body. Malfunctioning of the heart (pumping action and /or current generation and conduction) adversely affects nutrient and oxygen availability to organs and removal of waste products from the body lowering the quality of life and making the survival reasonably difficult. Heart functioning can be examined through physical examination of the heart such as general inspection (looking for abducted elbow, jugular distension or pulse, edema of ventral abdomen or limbs, tachypnea /dyspnea), evaluations of vitals (temperature, pulse, respiration,