eChapters

Foot and Mouth disease

Foot and mouth disease is a contagious viral disease of cloven footed animals caused by a picorna virus and characterized by presence of vesicles in oral mucosa and foot (Fig.1.1).

Etiology

• RNA virus of picornaviridae family

• Picorna virus

• Serotypes A,O,C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3, Asia-1, serotype ‘O’ is most common in India.

Pathogenesis

Inhalation is the main route of infection in ruminants; however, ingestion of contaminated feed and water, inoculation of contaminated vaccines, insemination with contaminated semen and contact with fomites such as clothing, instruments etc. may also transmit the infection. When animal gets infected through respiratory tract, viral replication starts in pharynx followed by viraemic spread to other tissues and organs like epithelium of mouth. Viral excretion commences about 24 hours prior to the onset of clinical form of disease and continues for several days. The aerosols of infected animals contain large amount of virus particularly of swine. Large amount of virus is excreted in milk. In cattle and sheep, virus may be detectable up to 2 years and 6 months of exposure, respectively.

10.1 Introduction

Rainwater is the main source of water for agriculture but its current use efficiency for the crop production is low ranging between 30-45%. The rising demand for water for non-agricultural uses is proportionately decreasing its share for agricultural uses. Efficient methods of water harvesting in the farm reservoirs including farm ponds and its management for subsequent uses in agriculture with improved water use technologies are vital for increasing the productivity and reducing poverty in rainfed ecosystems. It is not to be forgotten that the harvested water in the pond is a very valuable commodity. It may be used for industrial use or for irrigation in agriculture. The harvested water is also a good source to meet the water demand of domestic animals and for human beings (Fig. 10.1). The stored water of the pond can be used for fish farming, tree plantation, intensive irrigation to small area and extensive supplemental irrigation to rainfed crops. Stored water in a pond is developed resource and is, therefore, more expensive than the natural resource. Hence, there is a need to utilize it judiciously and efficiently.

Environmental contaminants are defined as substances introduced into the environment, either naturally or anthropogenically, that pose potentialharm to living organisms and ecosystems (Masindi and Muedi, 2018).These contaminants include a diverse range of pollutants, such as chemicalagents, biological contaminants and physical pollutants (Ahmed et al.,2021). Understanding these contaminants and their toxicity is of paramountimportance, given their profound implications on human health, biodiversityand the overall functioning of ecosystems (Samuel et al., 2023).Environmental contaminations are pervasive in nature and originated fromdiverse sources. Industrial activities are major contributors, releasing heavymetals, organic solvents, and particulate matter into air, water and soil(Williams, 2019). Similarly, agricultural practices contribute to contaminationthrough excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, which often runoff intoaquatic systems, causing eutrophication and harming aquatic life (Zahoor and
Mushtaq, 2023). Urbanization and improper waste management have alsointensified the problem with plastics and emerging contaminants finding theirway into ecosystems (Singh et al., 2022). Even natural events like volcaniceruptions and forest fires contribute to environmental contamination, thoughtheir impacts are often localized and episodic compared to the persistent andwidespread pollution caused by human activities (Ernst, 2012).The study of environmental contaminants and their toxic effects is of vitalimportance for several reasons in today’s context of escalating global pollution(Hussain and Reza, 2023). First, it provides insights into the health risks posedto humans and wildlife (Pereira et al., 2015). Many contaminants, such as lead,mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), are known to have chronic andacute toxic effects on biological systems, affecting neurological, reproductivand immune functions (Priyadarshanee et al., 2022). These substances interactwith biological systems in complex ways, often leading to adverse outcomessuch as bioaccumulation, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption and ecologicalimbalances (Satkar et al., 2024). Heavy metals like lead and mercury are
known to accumulate in organisms and disrupt critical biological functions,while synthetic chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) can interfere with hormonalsystems, resulting in reproductive and developmental issues (Pan et al., 2024).Such impacts underscore the need to understand how these substances interactwith living organisms, identify their exposure thresholds and mechanisms oftoxicity to formulate strategies for risk assessment and mitigation (Kumar andSingh, 2023).

Introduction

Plants are the main source of nutrition to farm animals for their maintenance and production. But, under certain conditions, plants intoxicate farm animal life due to the presence of some deleterious substances called phytotoxins. Such plants include a variety of fodder plants (Jowar, wheat straw, Lucerne), grasses (Millet grass), ornamental or fencing plants (Crotons, Nerium sps) and weeds (Tribulis) in the farm premises.

STUDIES ON HUMAN RELATIONS
Introduction

A human relation is frequently used as a general term to describe the ways in which managers’ interact with their employees. A number of things were happening in United States in the 1920s and 1930s, organizations were growing in size and in their dependence upon technology. Social groups were breaking down. The combination of all these factors with the growing dissatisfaction with paced, mechanized, highly standardized work led to changes in two major directions. Management science developed as a technical discipline, concerned with the establishment of efficiency models of managerial and organizational behaviour. The other perspective was initiated by the work of Human Relation scientists. They are discussed in detail here.

    1.    Food : defined as something which is eaten / drunk by human beings or something we eat and which can be utilized by our body.

    2.    Milk and milk products like Dahi, yoghurt, paneer, cheese, Khoa etc these foods are rich sources of Vitamin A, Riboflavin and Calcium.

    3.    Meat, fish, poultry etc besides proteins these foods also provide Iron and B- complex Vitamins.

    4.    Eggs and egg products are also rich in Iron, Vitamin A and Riboflavin (B1).

    5.    Pulses, nuts and oil seeds are also a good source of thiamin, niacin, and Iron.

    6.    Strategies and measures for alleviating the world food problem require.

1. DEFINITIONS

Various definations of weed have been proposed. Weed is defined as a valueless plant growing wild, especially one that grows on cultivated ground to the exclusion or injury of the desired crop. Weed means any undesirable or troublesome plant, especially one that grows profusely where it is not wanted. The weed have also been defined a plant considered undesirable. Weeds are commonly unwanted plants in human-controlled settings, such as farm fields, gardens, lawns and parks. A weed may be any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, or is outside its native habitat. Some plants that often are considered to be weeds are Bermuda grass, creeping Charlie, dandelion, golden rod, poison ivy, ragweed, wild carrot, wood sorrel, nutsedge etc.

Crops belonging to family Cucurbitaceae are generally known as ‘Cucurbits’. It consists of a wide range of vegetables either used for salad purpose (cucumber) or for cooking (all gourds), pickling (West Indian gherkin) or as dessert fruit (muskmelon, water melon) or candied or preserved (ash gourd).  As a group, cucurbits occupy the largest area in India and in other tropical countries. Its use is not primarily because of calories, minerals or vitamins since they are generally low to moderate in nutrients with a few exceptions like bitter gourd (rich in vitamin C- 96mg/100g), pumpkin (vitamin A 1600 IU/100g ), Kakrol (high protein  3.1g/100g,), parwal and chow chow (calcium- 531 mg and  140 mg / 100 g respectively). From the nutritional point of view, cucurbit seeds are valued for their high oil and protein contents.  Seed proteins of cucurbits are comparable to that of legumes and are richer in methionine.

    1.    Rice is a
        a)    Edible fruit    b)    Edible Vegetable
        c)    Edible flower    d)    All
    2.    Major components in cereal seeds are 
        a)    Endosperm    b)    Germ or embryo
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Bran is composed of 
        a)    Pericarp    b)    Testa
        c)    aleuron layer    d)    All
    4.    Oats contains ______________ percent of hull
        a)    50    b)    40
        c)    30    d)    20

    1.    Laminar flow hood works on the principle of 
        a)    High-efficiency particulate air filter
        b)    High-energy particulate air filter
        c)     High-efficiency pressure air filter
        d)     None
    2.    Most of the organisms are killed
        a)    121°C for 5 min.    b)    15lb/in²
        c)     a & b    d)     None
    3.    Autoclaving is not recommended for
        a)    Oils    b)    Powders
        c)     Sensitive fluids    d)     All

Administration

Term Administration is derived from a Latin word Administaire which means to serve. The word administration is also derived from the English word administracioun, which is in turn is derived from the French word administration, which itself has its root from the Latin word administratio, which means ad (to) and ministratio (give service). The term administration is a more general and comprehensive connotation and may be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives. Administration is a distinct skill and directed towards the guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of a group of individuals towards some common goal.

Administration is the art of guiding, coordinating and integrating policies established for any organizational unit to effectively and efficiently achieve the purpose of the organization.

Partitioning of assimilated carbon among sink organs is a critical factor that controls the rate and pattern of plant growth. Environmental stress often restricts resource availability while successful acclimation sets in motion processes that restore the supply. A key mechanism contributing to regulation of carbon partitioning is an expression of genes that control activity of the enzymes which initiate sucrose metabolism at specific sites and stages of ontogeny. Drought stress not only limits the size of the source and sink tissues but the phloem loading, assimilate translocation and dry matter portioning are also impaired. However, the extent of effects varies with the plant species, stage, duration and severity of drought. Crop production faces many challenges, due to changing environmental conditions and evolving needs for new plant-derived materials. 
The extreme temperatures those are consequences of present-day global climate changes are considered as major abiotic stresses for crop plants. Temperatures exceeding the limits of adaptation substantially influence the metabolism, viability, physiology, and yield of many plants. Plants exposed to extreme temperatures often show a common response in the form of oxidative stress. However, the extent of damage caused by extreme temperatures depends greatly on the duration of the adverse temperature, the genotypes of the exposed plants, and their stage of growth. Numerous research findings support the notion that induction and regulation of antioxidant defenses are necessary for obtaining substantial tolerance against environmental stress. Plant adaptation to either high temperature or low temperature is a multigenic response which is very complex in nature. Plant response to continuous light depends on plant tolerance and can be modified by alteration in temperature, light intensity, CO2 level, and other environmental factors.

1. 1 Introduction

Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important inputs for crop production.

1.    Normally economic growth refers to ___________.

(a) Growth in actual nominal per capita output

(b) Growth in potential real per capita output

(c) Growth in actual real per capita output

(d) Growth in potential real per capita output

2.    Which one of the following is not true about economic development?

(a) Problem of under developed country

(b) Its discontinuous and spontaneous change

(c) It means more output only

(d) Its innovative process

Seed is the basic input of agriculture, and its importance has now well recognized in the food supply chain since the warranty for production could be succeeded only based on the availability of seed. Seed becomes the quality seed, on possession of specific characters, viz. germination, vigour, purity and health status, hence, seed production becomes the specified scientific technology with the foreseeing of quality and storability in addition to productivity. From time immemorial, seeds are being imposed with some management techniques for improvement in seed quality and thereby the productivity. These seed management techniques are known as seed treatments. Generally, seed treatment is the application of biological, chemical agents and physical techniques to the seed in order to obtain the benefit of plant protection, production and invigouration. Basically, seed treatments are intended to improve the quality of seeds since nothing can substitute poor quality seed, no matter how lavishly other inputs are spent on the crop established from such seeds. Even for a resource poor farmer, high quality seed would be a great advantage because it ensures the best utility of all inputs in addition to the augmentation of yield increase by 15 to 20%.

In general, seed treatment could broadly be classified into physical and physiological treatment. Physical treatment is external seed treatment, while physiological is impregnation of needy substances into the seed through various seed management techniques. Some of the germination augmenting physiological seed treatments are seed fortification, seed hardening, seed priming, dry permeation and pre-germination. In addition, some of the seeds are imposed with special treatments such as dormancy breaking treatment such as soaking in water, mechanical scarification, acid scarification, bio-scarification, scorching, warm stratification, cold stratification and electrical seed treatment. The common physical seed treatments are seed pelleting, seed coating/film coating and seed colouring. Seeds are also imposed with some other physical treatments that can act on the physiology of the seed such as irradiation, magnetic and electrical seed treatment. In addition, irrespective of seed, seeds are given with protective treatment when they are taken for storage, which are commonly termed as pesticide seed treatment. Seeds are also given with corrective treatment at their initiation reduction with seed quality characters during storage, which are termed as mid storage correction.

3. Contemporary Crisis in Global Agriculture
Over the past century, bunch of initiatives have been taken and achieved worldwide in expediting human welfare. Societies have also changed to great extent as a result of quantum leaps in technology, rapid globalization, and innovations in agricultural production systems. Perhaps the world ‘free of fear and want’ envisioned at the foundation programme of the United Nations is still a far cry.
Similarly, much work left to be fulfilled the vision of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and to make ‘a world free of hunger and malnutrition and one in which food and agriculture contribute to improving the living standards of all, especially the poorest, in an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable manner’.
Amidst great plenty, millions of people still face pervasive poverty, inequalities, joblessness, natural resource depletion, environmental degradation, displacement, migration, disease, and deprivation. Majority of humanity’s progress has reached at a significant cost to the environment. The impacts of climate change are already being felt, and if left unabated; definitely will intensify to a considerable extent in the years coming. Besides, population dynamics will radically change demographics over the decades ahead. Growth in the world’s population is projected to be concentrated in Africa and South Asia and in the biggest cities.
Then agricultural production has to maintain pace with those of rising population for atleast a sustainable world. Although, agricultural production more than tripled between the years of 1960 and 2015, where Green Revolution owes to robust crop production and a significant increment in the use of land, water and other natural resources for agricultural purposes. This period witnessed a remarkable progress in both of industrialization and globalization of food and agriculture. At the same time changes in the length of food supply chains took place as the physical distance from farm to plate has increased dramatically; the consumption pattern of processed, packaged, and prepared foods has changed simultaneously in everywhere though the most in rural communities.

Cucurbits account for the largest group of tropical vegetables, consisting of cucumber, muskmelon, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, bitter gourd, ivy gourd, wax or ash gourd, chow chow or chayote, pumpkin, summer squash, winter squash, watermelon etc. They all belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae. They are herbaceous in nature and are characterized by tendril-bearing vines and adaptation to warm climate of the tropics and subtropics. Among the different genera of cucurbit vegetables, three genera viz., Cucumis (cucumbers, melons), Cucurbita (pumpkins, squash), and Citrullus (watermelons), are economically important in the world while the others hold regional importance. Most of the cucurbits are grown for its immature fruits and are consumed as salads or cooked vegetable. While, muskmelon and watermelon are used fresh as dessert fruits. Pumpkin and squashes are used in confectionaries besides as cooked vegetables. Mature ash gourd fruits are used in sweet candy preparation.

Cucurbits are low in calories, minerals, or vitamins. However, bitter gourd is rich source of vitamin C, the squash, pointed gourd, and muskmelon contain good amounts of carotene, kakrol is high in protein, and pointed gourd is rich in calcium. Bitterness in some species of cucurbits was attributed by the varying degree of bitter principles, cucurbitacin. Bitter gourd is known for its hypoglycemic activity due to phytoceutical, cheratin in the fruit, which lowers blood sugar level.

1.    Introduction    71
2.    Microorganisms in Food Industry    72
    2.1.    Microorganisms as the agents of fermentation in  
        traditional fermented foods, 73
    2.2.    Microorganisms as the source of food, 83
    2.3.    Microorganisms as a source of food supplements, 86

3.    Microorganisms in Pharmaceutical Industry    92

    3.1.    Antimicrobial agents from microorganisms, 92
    3.2.     Microorganisms as probiotics, 97
    3.3.    Microbial enzymes in  pharmaceuticals, 98
    3.4.    Mushroom nutriceuticals, 98