eChapters

Abstract

Groundwater is most favored as a source of drinking water in all over world. It is often thought to be cleaner and easier to treat when compared with surface water and as a result, many wells have been sunk. Uranium and other radionuclides in water can lead to health problems if present in higher concentrations. In order to study the behavior and to understand the influence of lithology in groundwater of Madurai district, a study was conducted by collecting a total of 216 samples of different seasons (Premonsoon, South west monsoon, Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon) with respect to lithology and the number of samples was depending upon their spatial coverage in the study area. The groundwater samples were analysed for U, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO₃^-, Cl^-, SO₄^2-, PO₄^3-, NO₃^-, F^-, H₄SiO₄, pH, EC, TDS. It was identified that the higher concentration of Uranium (156 ppb) were noted in the northern part of the study area. They are chiefly restricted to the Granitic terrain and nearby Charnockitic regions. The weathering process induces the release of higher U ions from the granitic terrain and the evaporated recharge water from the tank /reservoir  also induces the release of U ions from the rock matrix, it may also be due to fertilizer enriched agricultural return flows. The key source for all these processes and hydrogeochemical processes is identified to be lithology which inturn controls all the other processes in the study area.

ABSTRACT

The Kolanthamamalai hill an offshoot of Kalakadu Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of Southern Western Ghats is one of the important forest reserves of Tirunelveli District. The physiography of this range differs much from the adjacent portions of Southern Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu state due to its discontinuity, varying altitude, ridges and their height and breadth. The altitude of the hilly rugged terrain ranges from 150 to 300m, with the highest peak being Kolanthamamalai. Field visits were made in the study area to survey and to gather information on medicinal flora. The vegetation of Kolanthamamalai hill is a mixed dry deciduous type characteristic of the high and low altitude of the mountains respectively. Lowland vegetation girdles the base of the mountain on the eastern and southern side of the hills. Along the foot hills vegetation is an open scrub with occasional trees. The low-lying areas and the seasonal watercourses are densely vegetated. The natural barriers, habitat diversity, climate and moderate rainfall have resulted in the development of unique plant diversity.

Abstract

Deduction of overindulgence fluoride (F)  from the water has been endeavor by numerous investigators by using different materials both natural and artificial. The objective of this paper was to attempt the fluoride removal by using the locally available natural materials such as red soil, untreated charcoal, local powdered brick, fly-ash from Neyveli (thermal power plant) and mineral serpentine were used, adopting column method. Maximum defluoridation occurs immediately after the experiment has started. The morality of fluoride removed per gram is more in red soil when compared to the other materials. Variation of fluoride removal with time was studied after the erection of the column /unit, the defluoridation setup was then connected to the public water supply from the overhead tank of 50,000L capacity. Higher F removal was noted when flow rate was lesser. An attempt on the regeneration of the fluoride adsorbed soil was also made.

ABSTRACT

Hydrogeochemistry of a region is a reflection of hydrodynamic process, composition of lithology and physical constraints. The water chemistry is the resultant of all biogeochemical processes and reactions, which have acted on water from the moment it has condensed in atmosphere till the time it is discharged. A case study has been carried out in a varied lithological terrain with Archean, Alluvium and Tertiary rocks to unravel the hydrogeochemical process. A geochemical model relays the distribution of mineral species in the groundwater. Geochemical modeling WATEQ4F has been carried out for pre-monsoon and monsoon period of various litho units in Gadilam river basin, Tamilnadu to find out the disequilibrium indices of carbonate (calcite, dolomite, magnesite and aragonite) and sulfate minerals (anhydrite and gypsum). The result of the model reveals that carbonate minerals show the over saturation state in monsoon period and the Sulfate minerals exhibit under saturation state in both the seasons.

Introduction

For capacity building of farming community, training plays a vital role. It helps in enriching the knowledge along with enhancement of essential skill required in performing certain practices in a specific crop cultivation. The skills required by a coconut cultivator need to be supplemented with additional skills in order to increase the yield of nuts. Government provide better support to the coconut growing farmers to improve their income, to reduce the risk involved in cultivation, implementation of quality agricultural practices and f inally enhancing the income of coconut grower in business mode. Training is a source of information, advice and influence in the decision making process. Training helps in enhancement of knowledge, improvement of skill, interaction with experts and to build confidence. Keeping this in view, the present study was conducted to know the training need areas of coconut growers in Gop block of Puri district of the state of Odisha.

1. Introduction

Sustainability embodies an ecological vision aimed at fostering enduring human coexistence on Earth. Over time, its definition has evolved in literature and context, generating ongoing debate. Generally, experts frame sustainability around three pillars: social, economic, and environmental. While environmental concerns often dominate discussions, sustainability encompasses broader challenges like pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem service decline. This concept influences decision-making globally, politically, and personally.

Sustainable development, often used interchangeably with sustainability, is distinguished by UNESCO as a long-term objective versus the diverse processes and pathways to achieve it. Within the economic dimension, the tension between welfare and environmental preservation is explored through concepts like “weak and strong sustainability,” acknowledging the necessity of trade-offs. Ideal policies would aim to decouple environmental degradation from economic growth.

Environmental sustainability is pursued through various means such as ecosystem preservation, collaborative resource management, reducing food waste, advocating plant-based diets, managing fertility rates to curb population growth, and transitioning away from fossil fuels towards clean energy and innovative green technologies.

ABSTRACT

An Expert System also called a Knowledge Based System is a computer program designed to simulate the problem-solving behavior of an expert in a narrow domain or discipline. In agriculture, expert systems unite the accumulated expertise of individual disciplines, e.g., plant pathology, entomology, horticulture and agricultural meteorology, into a framework that best addresses the specific, on-site needs of farmers. Expert systems combine the experimental and experiential knowledge with the intuitive reasoning skills of a multitude of specialists to aid farmers in making the best decisions for their crops. The various expert systems were developed since evolution of Artificial Intelligence. This paper compares the availability of various expert systems in agriculture for last 30 years.

Introduction

Agricultural production has evolved into a complex business requiring the accumulation and integration of knowledge and information from many diverse sources. In order to remain competitive, the modern farmer often relies on agricultural specialists and advisors to provide information for decision making. Unfortunately, agricultural specialist assistance is not always available when the farmer needs it. In order to alleviate this problem, expert systems were identified as a powerful tool with extensive potential in agriculture.

INTRODUCTION

Libraries are undergoing rapid changes due to the developments in Information Communication Technology (ICT). Paper based resources are giving way to electronic resources. The dynamic linking capability of web has provided users unrestricted access to information. ICT has brought massive changes in distance mode of education. ICT has helped to introduce many virtual universities in the world, which are operated through Internet and other telecommunication technologies. The e-learning library should organize and present the e-learning resources and services in a way that help users to locate and retrieve materials needed efficiently.

At present e-portals of various organizations come across as gateway for the websites that aggregates information from variety of sources, providing access to information network and set of services through the web. For examples the libraries of National Research Centers of India, Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). The approach of learning of these institutes doesn’t mean composed, organized and packaged e-information resources in a blogging pattern but it is comprehensive and fully accessible to the user as reader and writer. Undoubtedly, a study of e-library environment of these institutes immensely helps us in evaluate the potential of proliferation of digitalization of libraries in India.

Abstract

A survey of various wheat milling units (atta chakki) available around Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi was conducted to study the performance of these. The mills of various sizes (12", 16", 18", 20", 24" and 30" stone disc diameter) with horsepower ranging between 2 to 20 are in operation. Both horizontal and vertical disc types of mills are in use. The capacity of these units ranges between 10 kg/h to 200 kg/h. The stationary sieve, hand sieve, pedestal/exhaust fan are used for cleaning. The average wheat cleaning cost is Rs. 200 per ton. A small room of 8' x 10', 10' x 10' and 10' x 12' size is used for running the mills and storage of wheat grains. The grinding charges (Rs./q) of wheat, coarse grains (maize, sorghum, millet etc) and spices are 100, 200 and 1000, respectively. Sample of 500 g of wheat and flour were collected from each chakki and were analysed for wheat grain and flour quality. Infested, damaged grains were observed to be in 2-10% range. Sieve analysis of the flour was done and the average particle size, fineness modulus and uniformity index of the flour were calculated. Average particle size, fineness modulus and uniformity index were found in the range 0.1875 to 0.2023 mm, 1.052 to 1.297 and 0:1:9, respectively. Average particle size of the flour obtained from horizontal mills was found to be higher than vertical mills. Temperature of the flour at the outlet was observed in between 45 and 50°C at room temperature of 18.5°C.

Introduction

The phrase “sustainable” has been used so much in recent years-and frequently so imprecisely—that for many people, it has become meaningless or confused, more of a rhetorical chant than a source of useful advice. Lester Brown, the founder of the World Watch Institute, defined a sustainable society as one that can meet its requirements without compromising the opportunities for future generations. This definition is the one that we come across most frequently. Brown wrote this description in the early 1980s. The Brundtland Report, a 1987 United Nations report, addressed this issue and defined sustainable development as development that satisfies present demands without jeopardising the ability of future generations to satiate their own. Despite their obvious limitations speaking simply of human wants, for example, without reference to the natural world-these are significant moral exhortations. They do serve as a helpful reminder that it is our duty to provide our kids and grandkids with an equally abundant planet as we did, but they offer no guidance on how to truly create a sustainable society. When air, water, and minerals interact with living things to fill a specific region, it is referred to as an ecosystem (Tansley, 1935). This word was first used in 1935. Before then, the main goals of land management had been to provide a single item, like food or lumber, or to conserve a single, iconic species.

Introduction

Time series analysis is a powerful tool for detecting and describing sequential processes, and it has become increasingly important in water resource management, especially in the context of global warming and climate change. Statistical methods have been widely used for analyzing climatological time series, such as precipitation, air temperature, and evapotranspiration, and hydrological time series, such as streamflow and surface water quality. However, most of the linear time series models depend on strict assumptions, such as homogeneity, trend-freeness, stationarity, non-periodicity, and lack of persistence, which are often violated in real-world datasets. Therefore, there is a need to develop new models that are more flexible and can accommodate different types of data (Machiwal & Jha, 2006).

One of the most popular and widely used classical time series models is the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model, which has linear statistical properties and can be built using the Box-Jenkins methodology (Box and Jenkins, 1970). This model adoption is important for hydrological analysis because it can help in accurately characterizing and predicting the behavior of hydrological time series data. ARIMA models can capture complex patterns and trends in the data and can be used to forecast future values of the time series. This can help in better understanding the underlying processes that drive hydrological variability, such as changes in precipitation patterns or land use. Furthermore, hydrological data often exhibit seasonality and long-term trends, which can be accounted for in ARIMA modeling. ARIMA models can also be used for anomaly detection, identifying unusual events that may have significant impacts on water resources. Overall, ARIMA modeling provides a f lexible and powerful framework for analyzing and forecasting hydrological time series, which is essential for effective water resource management in the face of changing environmental conditions.

Introduction

The sacred chank, scientifically known as Turbinella pyrum (Xancus Pyrum - Linnaeus, 1758), is an extraordinary marine mollusk found in the pristine waters of the Indian Ocean and surrounding areas. Revered for its captivating beauty and symbolic significance, this large sea snail holds a prominent place in the rich tapestry of Indian culture and religious traditions. Devotional side and stories of sacred chank Turbinella pyrum is not new to Indian culture. It is as significant from a biodiversity standpoint as it is from a cultural perspective. 

Dr. Chauhan, a renowned figure in the field of veterinary science, has left an indelible mark on the discipline through his groundbreaking research, innovative teaching, and unwavering dedication to the advancement of animal health and welfare. Over the years, his exceptional contributions have earned him a multitude of prestigious awards, medals, and honors, making him a luminary in his field.
His illustrious career began to gain recognition with the Best Young Scientist Award in 1992by Indian Association of Veterinary Pathologists, an acknowledgment of his potential and early contributions to veterinary science in general and Veterinary Pathology in particular. This award marked the start of a journey filled with accolades that would underscore his relentless pursuit of excellence. Four years later, in 1996, he was honored with the IAAVR Award, further solidifying his position as a promising researcher and academic.
By 1999, Dr. Chauhan’s expertise and dedication had earned him the National Fellow Professor chair of ICAR, a prestigious recognition that highlighted his growing influence in veterinary research. Around the same time, he was conferred the title of Fellow NAVS (2000) and Fellow SIIP (2001), reflecting his significant contributions to national and international veterinary organizations. These fellowships were a testament to his role in advancing scientific understanding and his collaborative efforts within the veterinary community.
Dr. Chauhan’s profound impact on the field was also recognized with several specialized awards, including the K.S. Nair Memorial Award in 1999, the Vigyan Bharti Award in 2000, and the Dr. C.M. Singh Trust Award in 2002. These honors celebrated his ability to merge academic rigor with practical applications, benefiting both the academic community and the agricultural
sector. Similarly, the Dr. Rajendra Prasad Award (2002) and the Shri Ramlal Agrawal National Award (2000) underscored his contributions to veterinary science in India.

Introduction

The study of spatiotemporal time series forecasting has gained significant attention in recent years, as it involves analyzing records of events that occur over both space and time. Spatiotemporal models group time- and location-specific discrete variables and are used in various sectors, including agriculture, transportation, meteorology, economics, disease mapping, sociology, environmental sciences, and ecology. However, the popular Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) (Box and Jenkins, 1970) model has two major flaws: it assumes linearity, which is not always the case in time series data that may exhibit nonlinear interactions, and it is a univariate model that cannot capture spatial linkages. Hence, when investigating time series data that are not perfectly linear and involve spatial correlation, the ARIMA model should not be used. Other multivariate time series models like VARMA have also been used to represent spatiotemporal data. However, VARMA models require more parameters, and the STARMA model introduced by Cliff and Ord has fewer parameters (Cliff and Ord, 1975). In previous literatures, the STARMA model was commonly used for modeling different spatiotemporal time series data (Kamarianakis, 2003). The STARMA model was previously employed to forecast the spatiotemporal data in different fields such as economics, disease mapping, climate modeling, agriculture, etc. (Pfeifer and Bodily, 1990; Lee, 2005; Rathod et al., 2018; Saha et al., 2020 and Rathod et al., 2021).

Objectives

1. To identify the morphological character of different spices and condiments.
2. To know the best variety of particular crop in that region.
3. To know the problems which are the main drawback of that region in the cultivation of spices and condiments.
4. To know the feedback of farmers.

General information of Institute

1. Name of Institute:
2. Address of the Institute:
3. Establishment year of the institute:
4. Director of the Institute:
5. Total area of the Institute:
6. Climatic condition of Institute:

Abstract

Soil quality assessment has been recognized as an important step towards understanding the long term effects of land management practices within agricultural watersheds. Potential soil quality issues include continued high rates of erosion, losses of organic matter, reductions in soil fertility and productivity, as well as chemical and heavy metal contamination. This case study addressed the spatial variability of soil properties and its quality at the watershed level using geostatistical methods. Soil samples from the 0- to 20-cm depth were collected on a 100- by 100-m grid across an 88-ha watershed at Sakaliseripalli village in the Nalgonda District in Andhra Pradesh State, India. Geostatistical analysis showed that most of the soil parameters were moderately spatially dependent. An assessment framework, that included a minimum data set, linear scoring technique, and additive indices, was used to evaluate the soil quality index (SQI). Through principal component analysis, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable Na percentage, DTPA-extractable Zn, available P, available water, and dehydrogenase activity have been emerged as the most important indicators for evaluating soil quality. A kriged map of SQI was prepared for the watershed. The SQI was found to be higher in irrigated systems than under rainfed conditions. In the study, potential soil loss calculated using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and crop yield were identified as the quantifiable management goals; the results indicated that soils having higher soil quality indices were more productive and less erosion prone.

Keyword : Principal Component analysis, SQI, Watershed, Geostatistics, Potential soil loss

Abiotic stress: Unfavourable situation created by non-living factors to the growth and development of plants. Factors include water, temperature, soluble salts, heavy metals, etc.

Abscissic acid (ABA): A plant hormone belongs to isoprenoid compounds. It is also known as stress hormone since it has relevance in stress tolerance in plants. Some of the physiological effects of ABA are closing of stomata, synthesis of osmolytes and seed dormancy.

Abscission layer: Distinct layer of cells with weakened cell walls in abscission zone.

Abscission zone: A region near the base of petiole of leaf which contain abscission layer.

Abelia grandifolia Villarreal (Caprifoliaceae): Eng.- Glossy Abelia; Kash.– Abeel [NI]. A vigorous, arching, medium sized semi-evergreen shrub commonly grown in gardens for hedging. Leaves ovate, short petioled, entire, dark glossy-green. Flowers born in axillary cymes and terminal panicles, slightly fragrant, produced over a long period from June to October; sepals 2-5; corolla funnel form, white tinged pale- pink.

Accidental sampling: Accidental sampling as quota sampling is based upon the convenience in accessing sampling population. While quota sampling attempts comprise people possessing an obvious/visible characteristic, accidental sampling makes no such effort. Any person that comes across can be contacted for participation in the study. Collecting data are stopped when reaching the required number of respondents decided to have in the sample.

Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, watery, discoloured or bad flavoured (Plate 1 & 2).

Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 3).

Absinthe: It is green liqueur which is flavored with wormwood, anise, and other aromatic herbs (Plate 4). Its commercial production is banned in ma ny countries for health concerns.

Absolute alcohol: It is water free alcohol. It contains atleast 99 per cent pure alcohol by weight and obtained by digesting rectified spirit over quicklime and redistilling the same.

Absolute density: It is the ratio of weight of certain volume of a substance at 1oC to that of weight of same volume of water at 4oC.

Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity is defined as kg of water vapour per kg of dry air at a given temperature and pressure. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour divided by the mass of dry air in a certain volume of air at a specific temperature. The warmer air absorbs more water than cooler one. Absolute humidity is the measure of water vapour or moisture in the air, regardless of temperature.

Absolute pressure: It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus vacuum pressure (Plate 5).

Absolute zero: It is a theoretical temperature characterized by complete absence of heat and motion and equivalent to exactly -273.15°C or -459.67°F (Plate 6).

Abattoirs: It is the types of slaughterhouses where animals are slaughtered for meat and offal. Abattoirs usually include lairage (a holding area for live animals), a slaughtering line and cold stores. It has facilities for processing of by-products (blood, intestines, skins, fat, bristle, unusable waste products), and treatment of waste water and air are often included.
Absorbents: Materials or substances that is capable of absorption. Uses of absorbents include incorporation within food packaging (to absorb oxygen as a preservation technique, to control humidity, and to manage aroma and flavour problems in packaged foods) and for purification of foods and beverages, such as drinking water and liquid foods. Silica gel, Alumina, activated carbon or charcoal, zeolites, adsorption chillers used with refrigerants and biomaterials that adsorb proteins.
Absorption: It is a process involving molecules of one substance being taken directly into another substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process, physical absorption involving such factors as solubility and vapour-pressure relationships and chemical absorption involving chemical reactions between the absorbed substance and the absorbing medium. Absorption includes such processes as the passage of nutrients and other substances from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood and lymph, and also the uptake of water, fats and other substances into foods. It may also gain of water by dry foods.

Present work was undertaken to study the effect of doxycycline and doramectin inmale rats. Following exposure to doxycycline hyclate orally for 28 days at dose rate of 10,16.50 and 33 mg/kg, rats of any doxycycline treated groups did not show any clinicalsigns, mortality or abnormal behaviour. Percent body weight gain was significantlyreduced in rats of group treated with doxycycline (16.50 and 33 mg/kg). A significantincrease in relative weight of left and right testes was found in rats exposed to doxycycline(33 mg/kg). Doxycycline did not produce any change in haematological parameters in ratsof doxycycline treated groups. Blood glucose level, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol andBUN levels was significantly increased in rats of group exposed to doxycycline (33mg/kg). Rats of group treated with doxycycline (16.50 mg/ kg) exhibited a significantdecrease in blood HDL cholesterol level. Hepatic SOD level was significantly increased inrats of group treated with doxycycline (33 mg/kg).

Present study was undertaken to investigate the modulatory effect of Eucalyptus citriodora leaves extract and Cefixime on inflammatory biomarkers in experimentally induced endometritis in Wistar rats. Uterine discharge of clinical and subclinical endometritis cases having history of repeat breeding (43%) and abortion (57%) were found to have E. coli (60%) Staphyloccocus aureus (40%). Eucalyptus citriodora leaves methanolic extracts exhibited promising antibacterial activity against both clinical isolates as determined by disc diffusion method. Rat endometritic model was developed by inoculating the mixture of E. coli (1? 106)and Staphloccocus aureus (1? 108)in to uterine horns during diestrus stage followed by cervical ligation and the model was confirmed based on presence of visible pus in the uterus, edematous uterine horn, thinning of endometrial lining and presence of large number of polymorphonuclear cells and bacterial load in uterine flushing.

Abattoir is a structure meant to recover the edible portions of slaughtered animals for human consumption. These structures are used to cater the need of domestic purposes as well as some of them are utilized for export purposes. The demand of Indian meat and meat products is increasing day by day not only in our country but also around the globe. Therefore, millions (about 15 million cattle and buffalo and 1 million sheep and goat) of food animals are slaughtered every year to meet the current demand. Such large scale slaughter of food animals generates huge amount of wastes but due to lack of proper sanitary measures in majority of slaughter houses of our country their wastes not only deteriorate the hygiene of meat and meat products but also pose a potential threat to the environment. Therefore, it is an urgent need for safe and proper disposal of slaughter house and meat processing waste for food safety and human health. It is also important to protect the environment and to improve the quality and hygiene of meat and meat products.

By-products or offal’s are basically every part or particle which is not included in dressed carcass. It can also be explained as everything produced from the animals except dressed meat is considered as by-products. Meat industry now demands the full utilization of by-products to make the industry profitable and economically sustainable. It is also important for environmental management and to enhance the social image of the meat industry. The yield of animal by-products ranges between 50-60% of the live weight.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Ox: The lumbar vertebrae are characterized by elongated flattened transverse processes (projecting outwards) and large, strongly curved articular processes (Fig.5.1a). The body is constricted in the middle and expanded at the extremities. The anterior extermity is less convex and posterior is less concave. The posterior vertebral notches are much deeper. The intervertebral foramina are often double in the anterior part of the series and are very large further back.

• It is the posterior most and largest region of the insect-body. It is The abdomen is the metabolic and reproductive centre, where digestion, excretion, and the sexual functions take place.

• All the definitive number of segments differentiate in embryo (Epimorphic condition) except protura (Anamorphosis)

• In general more segments are visible in more generalised hemimetabolus insects than in more specialised holometabolus insects. For example in Acridids all 11 segments are visible whereas in muscidae only 2-5 segments are visible

• The basic number of abdominal segments in insect is eleven plus a telson/ tail (Protura) which bears anus. Abdominal segments are called uromeres.

• The undivided tergel plates overlap the sternal ones and the membranous pleura are enclosed in between them.

• The posterior part of each segment overlaps the anterior part of the segment behind it and the two segments are joined by the inter-segmental membrane.

• There are eight pairs of abdominal spiracles. The first pair lies just in front of each tympanum and the other lie dorso-laterally on each of the tergites of the segment to eighth abdominal segments.

• The terga and sterna bear antecostal ridges. The internal dorsal and ventral longitudinal muscles run one antecostal ridge to the other and act as retractors. The contraction of these muscles helps the segments to be retracted. The external muscles originate from the posterior part of the segment and attach to the anterior part of the acrotergite of the next segment. Thus, protraction of these muscles help in the extension of abdomen. Hence, musculature running longitudinally between helps in the contraction and extension of the abdomen.

• The abdominal segments are conveniently divided into three subregions i.e. pregenital, genital and postgenital segments.

The abdominal aorta is the continuation of thoracic part of the descending aorta which enters the abdominal cavity through hiatus aorticus of the diaphragm. After entering the abdominal cavity it passes caudally below the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae and psoas minor muscle in contact with the left crus of the diaphragm and the ventral common vertebral ligament. After reaching at the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra, it terminates into iliac quadrification by dividing into two common iliac arteries. Each of the common iliac arteries further divides into internal and external iliac artery. The internal iliac artery supplies arterial branches to the wall and the viscera of the pelvic cavity while the external iliac artery supplies arterial branches to the pelvic limb of the corresponding side. The abdominal aorta is related dorsally to the bodies of lumbar vertebrae, ventral common ligament, tendon of left crus of diaphragm and psoas minor muscle, ventrally to the pancreas and rumen, on its right to the caudal vena cava and on its left to the left adrenal, left kidney and left ureter. The abdominal aorta gives out parietal and visceral branches that supply the walls and the viscera of abdominal cavity.

Parietal branches

The parietal branches of the abdominal aorta are the six pairs of the lumbar arteries. Out of these, four or five pairs arise from the dorsal surface of the aorta while the fifth or sixth pair depending on where the aorta terminates (fifth or sixth lumbar vertebral level) arises from the internal iliac arteries.

The lumbar arteries, after arising from the dorsal surface of the aorta, pass upward across the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, reach the intertransverse spaces between the lumbar transverse processes and divide into dorsal and ventral branches. The dorsal branches are larger. They supply spinal branches to reinforce the ventral spinal artery and the muscular branches to supply the muscles and skin over the back (loin) region of the body trunk. The ventral branches run ventrally through the fascia and muscles of the abdominal walls and supply the muscles and skin of the walls of the abdomen.

Key Points

• There are several causes of abdominal pain.

• It is difficult to diagnose in animals, but behavioral changes may indicate abdominal pain.

• Evaluate and treat abdominal pain promptly to avoid life-threatening situations.

Introduction

Abdominal discomfort is typically acute (onset occurs suddenly), although it can also be persistent. It could be caused by inflammation of the abdominal wall or organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavities. Diagnosis is difficult due to the variety of etiologies involved. Patients with stomach pain demonstrate changes in behavior and posture. Treatment should be based on etiology and the underlying cause.

Bread, cloth and house (Roti, Kapra and Makan) are the basic need of human life and linked directly with agriculture because agriculture provides livelihood for nearly two-thirds of the population in India and it currently accounts for 14.2% of the GDP and also employs 55% of country’s total workforce. The sharp fluctuations in agricultural growth are mainly attributed to the vagaries of monsoon. Rainfed agriculture is spread over 55% of net cultivated area, contributing over 40% to the national agricultural production.

The objective of present study was to evaluate the influence of pre-exposure of chromium @ 1 mg/kg body weight and arsenic @ 38 ppb in drinking water continuously for 30 days in experimentally streptozotocin-induced type 2 diabetes in male Wistar rats and after 30 days of continuous exposure ameliorative potential of an ITK formulation @ 435 mg/kg body weight and its comparative efficacy with metformin @ 50 mg/kg body weight on diabetes induced testicular dysfunction.

Eighty four obese male Wistar rats were divided into fourteen groups viz. Normal Control, Obese, Non-diabetic + Chromium, Non-diabetic + Arsenic, Non-diabetic + Chromium-Arsenic combination, Obese Diabetic + chromium, Obese Diabetic + Arsenic, Obese Diabetic + Chromium-Arsenic combination, Obese Diabetic + Chromium + Metformin, Obese Diabetic + Arsenic + Metformin, Obese Diabetic + Chromium-Arsenic combination + Metformin, Obese Diabetic + Chromium + ITK, Obese Diabetic + Arsenic + ITK, Obese Diabetic + Chromium-Arsenic combination + ITK, consisting six animals in each group, were induced diabetes with streptozotocin @ 30 mg/kg body weight, intraperitoneally single dose after 30 days of pre-exposure to chromium and arsenic. After induction of diabetes ITK formulation and metformin were given by oral gavage continuously for 30 days.

The extreme temperatures those are consequences of present-day global climate changes are considered as major abiotic stresses for crop plants. Different studies clearly show that temperatures exceeding the limits of adaptation substantially influence the metabolism, viability, physiology, and yield of many plants. Plants exposed to extreme temperatures often show a common response in the form of oxidative stress. However, the extent of damage caused by extreme temperatures depends greatly on the duration of the adverse temperature, the genotypes of the exposed plants, and their stage of growth. There is ample need to develop temperature tolerance in crop plants by exploring suitable strategies. Numerous research findings support the notion that induction and regulation of antioxidant defenses are necessary for obtaining substantial tolerance against environmental stress. The development of genetically engineered plants, by the introduction and/or overexpression of selected genes, would to be one feasible strategy. However, plant adaptation to either high temperature or low temperature is a multigenic response which is very complex in nature. Thus the task of identifying the traits those correlate with stress tolerance is incredibly difficult for researchers. Plant response to continuous light depends on plant tolerance and can be modified by alteration in temperature, light intensity, CO2 level, and other environmental factors.

The stresses, drought, salinity, chemicals, cold and hot temperatures, have interconnected effects on plants, resulting in the disruption of protein homeostasis. Maintenance of proteins in their functional native conformations and preventing aggregation of non-native proteins are important for cell survival under stress. The heat shock proteins buffer this environmental variation and are therefore important factors for the maintenance of homeostasis across environmental regimes. Heat shock proteins are known to be expressed in plants experiencing high-temperature stress. Heat shock proteins are important in relation to stress resistance and adaptation to the environment. Their molecular function might be membrane or protein stabilization, but, for now, for most heat shock proteins the molecular function remains to be elucidated. The general observation of the response and induction of heat shock proteins following heat stress suggests that they play a fundamental role in cellular homeostasis. It is possible that heat shock proteins may be involved with the phenomenon of acquired thermotolerance. Heat stress disturbs cellular homeostasis and can lead to severe retardation in growth and development, and even death. Temperature stress can have also a devastating effect on both the plant anabolism and catabolism, initially acting on protein complexes, being the quaternary structure the first folding that is lost during heat stress or heating. Understanding the role of HSPs in relation to stress resistance in a more applied perspective as a potential indicator of stress is important. New technological developments make it possible to investigate the role of genes coding for heat shock proteins in greater detail. A combination of genomics and proteonomics will further elucidate the effects of stress on expression patterns at the DNA, RNA and protein level.

Environmental stress can disrupt cellular structures and impair key physiological functions. Drought, salinity, and low temperature stress impose an osmotic stress that can lead to turgor loss. Membranes may become disorganized, proteins may undergo loss of activity or be denatured, and often excess levels of reactive oxygen species are produced leading to oxidative damage. As a consequence, inhibition of photosynthesis, metabolic dysfunction, and damage of cellular structures contribute to growth perturbances, reduced fertility, and premature senescence. Responses to environmental stresses occur at all levels of organization. Cellular responses to stress include adjustments of the membrane system, modifications of the cell wall architecture, and changes in cell cycle and cell division. In addition, plants alter metabolism in various ways, including production of compatible solutes that are able to stabilize proteins and cellular structures and/or to maintain cell turgor by osmotic adjustment, and redox metabolism to remove excess levels of ROS and re-establish the cellular redox balance. At the molecular level, gene expression is modified upon stress and epigenetic regulation plays an important role in the regulation of gene expression in response to environmental stress.

Plants that are affected by various abiotic stresses react differently as a result such as the reduction in organ size or a change in the antioxidant enzyme system, and while drought and heat are often studied separately, in nature they often occur together, meaning it is essential to carry out joint studies. Furthermore, and related to the above when we consider high temperature stress, one must always consider the use of water and nutrients by the plant and other physiological functions. The effects of heat stress can also be analyzed by the technique that measures lipid peroxidation in polyunsaturated acids of the plasma membrane. The accumulation of metals in plants, affects the normal processes of plant metabolism. The study shows that there is a relationship between high metal contents in plants and their modified morphology: strong reduction of leaf thickness, modified parenchyma structure, and decreased mitochondria organization were ascertained, although toxic symptoms were apparently absent. Water-deficit stress has a significant effect on plants growth and development, with primary affects on plant structure, leaf morphology and cell ultrastructure. Physiological processes such as stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and respiration are consequently impaired with further implications on the metabolic functions such as carbohydrate and energy production as well as carbohydrate translocation and utilization.

Climate change drastically influence water availability, salinity and several adverse soil conditions which will have direct bearing on original yields. Abiotic stress factors influence growth and secondary metabolite production in higher plants. The influences are well marked. In fact, productivities depend on the changed ecosystem also. Secondary metabolites play a major role in the adaptation of plants to the changing environment and in overcoming stress constraints. This flows from the large complexity of chemical types and interactions underlying various functions: structure stabilizing, determined by polymerisation and condensation of phenols and quinones, or by electrostatic interactions of polyamines with negatively charged loci in cell components, photoprotective, related to absorbance of visible light and UV radiation due to the presence of conjugated double bonds, antioxidant and antiradical, governed by the availability of –OH, –NH2, and –SH groupings, as well as aromatic nuclei and unsaturated aliphatic chains, signal transducing. Several plant-abiotic stress stimuli systems evidenced the multiplicity of biochemical mechanisms involved in the protective role of secondary metabolites:

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench), known in many English-speaking countries as lady’s finger or gumbo, belongs to family Malvaceae. The geographical origin of okra is disputed and supposed to be South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins (Anonymous, 20013a). Its proposed parents are reported to be in South Asian; therefore, it is believed that perhaps it is of South Asian origin. However, because of greater diversity in okra in West African region, it is considered to be originated in West Africa. Masters (1875) proposed that it originated in India.
Okra is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions, including the Middle East, Africa, Brazil, Turkey and southern states of USA (IBPGR, 1990; Jideani and Adetula, 1993; Acquistucci and Francisci, 2002). In tropics it is cultivated during summer and in the warmer parts of the temperate regions. It is an annual or perennial plant, growing up to 2 m height. The leaves are 10–20 cm long and broad, palmately lobed with 5-7 lobes. The flowers are 4–8 cm in diameter, with five petals which are generally yellow, but often white with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The fruit is a capsule which may attain length up to 18 cm containing numerous round seeds. Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage (proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported “diploid” form of okra).

Stress is usually defined as an external factor that exerts a disadvantageous influence on the plant. Under both natural and agricultural conditions, plants are exposed to unfavourable environments that result in some degree of stress. Water deficit, chilling and freezing, heat stress and heat shock, salinity, oxygen deficiency and air pollution are major stress factors restricting plant growth. Stress is measured in relation to plant survival, plant processes, growth and crop yield. An environment, which is stressful for one plant, may not be stressful for another, e.g., pea and soybean that grow best at 20 and 30°C, respectively. As the temperature increases, the pea shows sign of heat stress much sooner than soybean, thus, soybean has greater heat stress tolerance.

To the farmers, the plants those survive in an adverse environment are called hardy plants and those, which do not survive under a particular adverse environment, are called susceptible or tender plants. So based on reactions of several plants to the environment, particular plants are selected for a region and also the farmers to suit the nature of a crop adopt different seasons of planting. Biologists have adopted the term stress for any environmental factor potentially unfavourable to a living organism. The ability of the plant to survive the unfavourable factor is due to its stress resistance. There is an equal and opposite reactions for every action. Stress is the action, whereas, strain is the reaction. A body of a plant subjected to stress is in a state of strain. External force of a particular stress causes disturbances in the body of the plant leading to a change in either shape or size and also may lead to internal disturbances, which affect physiological processes. Up to a point, a strain may be completely reversible. When the stress is released at this stage, the plant becomes normal without exhibiting any strain, which is known as elastic strain. Beyond this point, the strain will be partially elastic and irreversible partially, and then we say, it reaches permanent set and it is known as plastic strain.

Basic concepts of plant stress, acclimation and adaptation
Energy is the absolute requirement for the maintenance of structural organization over the lifetime of the organism. Maintenance of such complex structural organization over time requires a constant flow of energy through all biological organisms, which provides the dynamic driving force for the performance of important maintenance processes (the processes which are essential for an organism to remain alive and continue as the species) such as respiration, assimilation, nutrition, cellular biosyntheses and transport to maintain its characteristic structure and organization as well as the capacity to replicate and grow. Maintenance of such steady-state results in a meta-stable condition called homeostasis. Thus, “Homeostasis” is defined as a selfregulating process by which a living organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions. It is the state of balance among all the living systems needed for the organism to survive and function properly.
Plant stress
Any change in the surrounding environment may disrupt homeostasis. Environmental modulation of homeostasis may be defined as biological stress. Thus, plant stress implies some adverse effect on the physiology of a plant induced upon a sudden transition from some optimal environmental condition where homeostasis is maintained to some suboptimal condition which disrupts this initial homeostatic state.