eChapters

Enzymes are biocatalysts that play a crucial role in accelerating chemical reactions without undergoing any changes themselves. Enzymes enhance the rate of a reaction by reducing its activation energy without affecting the equilibrium position of the reaction. These catalysts specifically target molecules called substrates and convert them into different molecules known as products. Most enzymes have a proteinous nature, and some have a ribonucleic acid nature (like ribozymes and peptidyl-transferase), showing high substrate and stereo-specificity. Enzyme catalysis is indispensable for the majority of metabolic processes in cells, as it ensures that these processes occur at a rate that is sufficient to sustain life. The progression of metabolic pathways heavily relies on the catalytic activity of enzymes to facilitate individual steps.

The proteinous enzymes are classified into simple and conjugated enzymes.

1. Simple enzymes: Enzymes are made up of only protein components.

2. Conjugated enzymes: Enzymes comprise both protein (apoenzyme) and non-protein components (cofactor).

Endoskeleton of the Head (Tentorium)

• The tentorium forms during development when 2-4 pairs of apophysis/ apodemes (finger-like invaginations of exoskeleton) fuse internally to create a “bridge”.

• The major components of the tentorium are the anterior tentorial arms, the posterior tentorial arms, the dorsal tentorial arms, and the tentorial bridge.

• The anterior tentorial arms originate as invaginations at the lateral limits of the frontoclypeal suture. The coalescence of the anterior tentorial arms forms a more or less solid structure, the tentorial bridge.

• The posterior tentorial arms arise from pits at the ventral ends of the post occipital suture and they unite to form a bridge running across the head from one side to the other.

• In many insects, e.g. Orhtoptera, the central part of the composite tentorium enlarged to form a broad plate referred to as the Corporotentorium.

• The tentorium serves as an internal “truss” that reinforces the head capsule, cradles the brain, provides attachment for muscles and provides a rigid origin for muscles of the mandibles and other mouthparts. The antennal muscles also arise from the tentorium.

• In most insects, life begins as an independent egg (ovipary).

• Majority of insects are oviparous. Egg stage is inconspicuous, inexpensive and inactive. Yolk contained in the egg supports the embryonic development.

• Eggs are laid under conditions where the food is available for feeding of the future young ones.

• Production of eggs by the female’s body is called oogenesis and the egg laying process is known as oviposition.

• The outer protective shell of the egg is called chorion. Near the anterior end of the egg, there is a small opening called micropyle which allows the sperm entry for fertilization. Chorion may have a variety of textures.

• Size and shape of the insect eggs vary widely.

INTRODUCTION

The aquaculture industry is regarded as one of the most advanced food production industries globally. From 2010 to 2020, it grew at an average annual rate of 4.6%, reaching 122.6 million tonnes of live weight (FAO, 2022). Sustainable aquaculture proposes numerous profits to attain economic progress through well usage of natural resources (FAO 2017). The expansions in the sustainable aquaculture business are challenging due to the inadequate number of available natural resources and industrialized effects that released to the surround environments (Costa-Pierce et al. 2012; Verdegem 2013). Particularly in intensive system, increased higher organic matter concentrations raise several future issues, including acute harmful, chronic impacts (Piedrahita 2003). Recently, Innovative biofloc technology system (BFT) is one of the most popular methods to combat these problems.

Biofloc is a climate-smart technology that relies on mass synthesis of in situ microorganisms (Ogello et al., 2021). The BFT permits high stocking densities and higher fish productivity (Ogello et al., 2021) while requiring limited or zero water exchange in to sustain the flocs (Emerenciano et al., 2017). The power of BFT aligns with the "cradle to cradle" concept that outlined by McDonough and Braungart (2002), which omits the phrase "waste”. In BFT, nitrogen wastes that generated from feces of aquatic animals and residual feeds are transformed into the microbial protein that becomes feed for the same creatures (Minaz and Kubilay 2021). Numerous microorganisms, including bacteria, microalgae, protozoa, and zooplankton, are present in biofloc particles (Ray et al. 2010a). Hence, biofloc can incorporate the diet of aquatic species, which utilises the natural productivity in the culture system as a feed source (Wasielesky et al. 2006; Emerenciano et al. 2012a). This microorganisms are recognised for their contributions to (i) preserving high water quality (Emerenciano et al., 2017), (ii) enhancing culture efficiency by lowering feed conversion ratio (FCR) and costs of feed (Hargreaves, 2006). (iii) biosecurity (Defoirdt et al., 2004), and (iv) conserving greenhouse gases (GHG) (Manan et al., 2016). These four biological roles of microorganisms in BFT units are factors of high fish production, profitability and environmental protection (Ogello et al., 2021).

Mites
Subclass: Acari
Order: Parasitiformes 
Suborder: Gamasida/Mesostigmata
Characters
1. Mites of this group have the stigmata or spiracles in the middle of the body, hence suborder Gamasida is also called suborder mesostigmata. Mites of this group are referred as gamasid mite.
2. Size of these mites are large about 0.6-2.5 mm in length and hence visible via naked eye.
3. They parasitisize birds and mammals.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 209).

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Dairy husbandry: It deals with care, breeding, feeding, milking of the diary cattle and the production and sale of the milk. It is the economical management of a dairy, including looking after the dairy cattle breeding and proper disposal or sale of milk and milk products.

Dairy products: These are the milk preparation, including butter, cream, cheese, ghee, yoghurt, pasteurized milk, tonned milk, butter milk etc processed and prepared in dairy. Ice cream and kulfi or sweets are not included in this.

Damage: Damage is a physical spoilage, often a partial deterioration, are subjectively judge and very difficult to measure and usually reported as per cent damage.

Daminozide: It is a growth regulator which is used for red colour development in apple.

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500- E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Earling: The young lamb of one to two years’ age is called earling or yearling.

Ebullioscopic constant: The boiling point elevation is expressed by Dtb = Km, where m is molality of the solution and K is ebullioscopic constant. It is also called as molal boiling point elevation constant. The unit of an ebullioscopic constant is K Kg mol-1.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Necrosis

Local death of tissue /cells in living body is known as necrosis, It is characterized by the followings.

• Pyknosis is condensation of chromatin material, nuclei become dark, reduced in size and deeply stained.

• Karyorrhexis is fragmentation of nucleus.

• Karyolysis is dissolution of nucleus into small fragments, basophilic granules/fragments.

• Chromatolysis is lysis of chromatin material.

• Necrobiosis is physiological cell death after completion of its function e.g. RBC after 140 days.

Necrosis is further classified into coagulative, caseative, liquifactive and fat necrosis which are different from apoptosis (Figs. 5.1 to 5.3).

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

To combat malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a food-based strategy to agricultural development that emphasizes dietary diversity, fortification, and consumption of nutrient-rich foods. This strategy recognizes the importance of consuming a wide range of foods for optimal nutrition and acknowledges the social and economic significance of the food and agriculture industries in supporting rural livelihoods (WHO, 2014)

The overarching goal of nutrition-sensitive agriculture is to enhance the ability of the global food system to produce nutritious outcomes. An increasing number of governments, donor agencies, and development organizations are endorsing nutrition-sensitive agriculture as a means to achieve their developmental objectives. However, relying solely on nutrition-specific interventions falls short of meeting global targets for improving nutrition. Agriculture, with its significant potential to influence nutrition outcomes, must also play a role. 

Design of Experiment was first elaborated by R. A. Fisher (1935).

• Design of Experiment: Proper allotment of treatments to the available experimental units.

• Treatment: It is the factor whose effect is to be studied. Example: Application of drugs, feeds, conditions, methods, etc.

• Experimental units: The subjects or individuals upon which an experiment is conducted.

Example: Laboratory animals like mice, rat, monkeys, primates; livestock like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, poultry; plants, a plot of land, etc.

Necessity of designing an experiment

1. To get maximum information from the available resources.

2. To know the effect of treatment on experimental units and to make comparison between treatments.

3. To know whether the difference between the effect of two treatments is significant or not.

4. A well designed experiment has a well defined method of statistical analysis of data.

5. To minimize error in the whole experimental procedure.

6. An ill designed experiment is not likely to give proper estimates of parameters and comparisons between treatments with desired precision even if the method of data analysis is very good.

7. The design of experiment is essential to get all the important treatment effects to be compared independently.

1. Introduction

For millennia, civilizations worldwide have relied on medicinal plants for healthcare, with their usage documented as far back as ancient Sumeria. Today, traditional medicinal plants remain vital in many regions, especially in developing countries. Ethnobotanical studies have identified numerous bioactive plants, sparking extensive research into their biological activities and chemical compositions. Interest in medicinal plants has surged due to the drawbacks and costs of prescription drugs, leading to increased exploration of plant-based alternatives. Plants offer diverse chemical compositions with varied biological activities, making them suitable for treating complex diseases and posing little risk of antibiotic resistance development. Aquaculture, the fastest-growing sector in animal food production, faces challenges such as overcrowding and poor water quality, leading to disease outbreaks. While veterinary drugs are commonly used, their intensive use poses environmental and health risks, including antibiotic resistance and accumulation in animal tissues. Vaccines are effective but expensive and often limited in scope. Given the drawbacks of synthetic drugs, there's a growing need for alternative disease management strategies in aquaculture. Medicinal plants offer a promising solution, with reported bioactivities such as stress reduction, immune stimulation, and antiparasitic effects. By enhancing fish immunity and f itness, medicinal plants provide a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to chemotherapy in aquaculture (Cabello et al., 2006; Romero-Ormazabal et al., 2012).

Salt-affected soils (SASs) are an important ecological entity in world agriculture. It varies with time and space depending on soil, rainfall, irrigation, microtopography, groundwater quality, and depth. Weathering of rocks and minerals, higher rates of evapotranspiration, deposition of wind-blown salt sediments, and seawater ingress are the significant factors contributing to the formation of SASs. Large acreage in canal-irrigated tracts of arid and semi arid areas, which suffers from water logging, is also responsible for secondary salinization. According to an estimate, about 33% of irrigated lands worldwide are affected by varying salinity and sodicity. Other reasons other than improper irrigation that cause soil salinization include deforestation, which results in salt resettling at upper and lower levels, chemical contamination, and air-borne and water-borne salts from industrial outpouring. In addition to soil salinity, the problem of poor-quality water would also significantly increase in the foreseeable future due to planned expansion in irrigated areas and intensive use of natural resources to fulfill the increasing population’s food and other livelihood requirements. Groundwater salinity under irrigated agricultural lands may or may not increase over time. The groundwater salinity will remain the same if the natural river water is used for irrigation. However, if the irrigation water is polluted and contains salts, the salinity of groundwater may show an increasing trend. The rate at which groundwater salinity may increase would depend upon the quality and quantity of recharge water, the depth of the hardpan/barrier layer under the groundwater table, and the substrate’s porosity.

Introduction

Before start of this chapter some pertinent questions need to be answered. What are different agro ecology and what are the problem soils. Since dawn of agriculture in early 2000 B.C. man has been doing agriculture as subsistence farming to cater the needs for his own consumption. Later on as the population increased, the availability of land per pearson reduced and further the commercialization of agriculture after world war II, particularly in industrialized nation, compelled farmers to increase productivity per unit area. The green revolution involving higher fertilizer uses, more use of agrochemicals together with evolvement of improved crop varieties in later part of twentieth century played vital role in producing higher grain production resulting the global production triplet in contrast to merely increase in total global cultivated area to the extent of 10%.

The catastrophe of green revolution was realized in later years when reports of soil health degradation started appearing. Intensified agriculture characterized by excessive use of fertilizers, agrochemicals and unsupportable level of over exploitation of natural resources led to serious degradation of ecosystem. Thus management of agroecosystem has reached to a crossroad with serious pressure to increase productivity simultaneously holding the soil health with prime concern for future generation. Thus the soil heath under different agroecosystem are posing problem as the soil productivity has not reached to plateau level but has started reducing year after year. Thus such soils are becoming problem which need special attention to bring them back to support higher crop production.

Seed bearing plants

Seed-bearing plants are broadly categorized in two major types: the gymnosperms and the angiosperms which are together grouped in Division Spermatophyta in the older system of classification for the plant kingdom. Consequently, seed plants are presently classified into multiple phyla. Still, for the purpose of learning basic concepts, it is convenient to group plants informally as spermatophytes (sperm "seed" + phyte "plant"). The spermatophytes are the most complex and evolutionarily advanced plants. Unlike ferns and bryophytes which reproduce and disperse by unicellular spores, spermatophytes reproduce and disperse by means of multi-cellular seeds which consist a protective seed coat surrounding an embryonic sporophyte and its food supply. This group of seed plants exhibits an alternation of generations in which the sporophyte is dominant. Furthermore, the gametophyte is microscopic and heterosporous with the latter term meaning that these seed plants produce two types of spores: microspores and megaspores that give rise to separate male gametophytes (micro-gametophytes) and female gametophytes (mega-gametophytes) respectively. The megaspore is never released from the sporangium; thus, the female gametophyte develops within the sporangium while being still attached to the sporophyte.

Seed dormancy

Plants evolve many mechanisms that ensure their survival. For instance, some species produce prodigious number of seeds so that even if only a small proportion germinate and grow, some seedlings will survive. Alternately, dormancy can be defined as: a seed characteristic, the degree of which defines what conditions should be met to make the seed germinate. This definition may be more useful in understanding dormancy because it suggests that dormancy is variable, rather than constant, which is the situation that we generally encounter in the native populations of many species. The staggering of germination (dormancy) is an advantage for seeds that mature in late summer to early fall, since immediate germination would leave vulnerable seedlings exposed to harsh winter conditions.

9.1. Introduction

Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS) beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in a number of ways, depending on their structure and composition.

The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

13.1. Introduction

The preservation by using common salt, spices and vinegar is a common method for preparation of pickles, sauce and chutneys. Salt is mostly used as preservative in pickles in combination with acid. Minimum concentration of salt to act as preservative is about 12%. It inhibits enzymatic browning/discoloration by acting as an anti-oxidant. It exerts its preservative action by:

• Causing high osmotic pressure and thus suppress the microbial cells.

• Dehydrating food by tying up the moisture thus making it unavailable for the growth of microorganisms.

• Salt in the food affects the solubility of oxygen and thus growth of aerobic microorganisms is inhibited

• Chlorine in sodium chloride being good oxidizing agent is toxic to microorganisms

• Salt increases the permeability of the cell wall and thus cause changes in the permeability. Only the haloduric microorganisms can tolerate these effects while others are unable to survive.

• Similarly addition of acid to the food lowers the pH of the food which inhibits the growth of spoilage causing microorganisms.

• Addition of spices and edible oil in these products besides improving flavour and taste also help in preservation.

16.1. Introduction

Plantation crops are high value industrial crops grown in the tropics play a vital role in agricultural economy and export trade of developing countries. Plantation crops have great potential for utilization of waste land like rainfed dry land, hilly, arid and coastal areas to provide nutritional security, earn foreign exchange and to ensure livelihood security. The major plantation crops grown in India are tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera), arecanut (Areca catechu L.), oilpalm (Elaeis guinensis), cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum). India is the leading producer of most of these plantation crops. Among all fruit crops, the processing plays an important role in plantation crops as they are generally consumed only after processing. In addition to primary products which are exported largely, some by-products from these crops also have industrial as well as commercial uses. Coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, black pepper and cardamom are known as small holder plantations whereas, crops like rubber, tea and coffee are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crop. Coir, wood and shell from coconut, leaf sheath in arecanut, cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) and feni from cashew are some of by-products with a great impact and demand in the market.

19.1. Introduction

Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. It is also defined as the combination of attributes or characteristics of the products that has significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to a user. Industry defines quality as the measure of purity, strength, flavour, colour, size, maturity, workmanship or any other distinctive attribute or characteristics of the product. According to USDA Marketing Workshop Report (1951) quality is the combination of attributes or characteristics of a product that have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to the user . The quality standards of fresh and processed fruit or vegetable products vary with their intended use. For marketing purposes; size, attractiveness, maturity, organoleptic quality and freedom from defects are to be kept in mind. While for processing, physico chemical attributes of raw material such as presence of soluble solids, development of uniform colour, flavour, juiciness, uniform maturity, tenderness in some vegetables etc are taken into consideration. During processing of fruit or vegetables into value added products; colour, flavour and texture etc also become important.

1. Particulate and duplicate nature of heredity factors or element was first demonstrated by
a) Bateson 
b) Mendel
c) Morgan 
d) Punnett
2. The particular site or position of a gene in a chromosome is known as
a) Genotype 
b) Phenotype
c) Locus 
d) Allele
3. Linkage group in swamp buffalo
a) 25 
b) 30
c) 24 
d) 26

Diffusion research investigates the spread of ideas within social groups. It extends beyond the two-step flow theory by examining the factors that influence the adoption of innovations, which can include new ideas, products, or practices, among members of a culture. In multi-step diffusion, while opinion leaders still play a significant role in influencing adopters' behavior, there are also other intermediaries involved in the decision-making process between the media and the audience.

One such intermediary is the change agent, who persuades opinion leaders to either adopt or reject an innovation (Infante, Rancer, & Womack, 1997).

Innovations are not universally adopted by all individuals in a social system simultaneously; rather, adoption typically occurs over time and can be categorized into adopter categories based on the time it takes for individuals to start using the new idea. For change agents, identifying which category individuals belong to is highly practical, as their short-term objective often involves facilitating the adoption of an innovation.

The adoption of new ideas is driven by human interaction within interpersonal networks. When the initial adopter of an innovation discusses it with two members of a social system, and these two in turn influence two more peers, and so forth, the pattern of adoption follows a binomial expansion. Over time, the distribution of adopters tends to follow a bell-shaped curve (Rogers, 1971).

The idea of social forestry is not new in India. It may be found in Lord Buddha’s teachings from around 2500 years ago. According to Buddha’s teachings, a devout Buddhist should plant one tree and nurture it for five years so that it matures into a complete tree. By doing this, a person should plant around f ive trees over his lifetime. It is also believed that the Great Emperor Ashoka planted fruit trees and shade trees by the roadsides for the benefit of passing travellers.

The rural economy in India has been largely supported by forests. In the past, the local people kept an ecological balance while managing their woods to provide food, fuel, fibre, fodder, timber and herbal remedies. However, India’s forests have rapidly disappeared due to biotic pressure from expanding human and animal populations, a lack of technical skills, insufficient investments, and ownership changes. In addition to biotic pressure, other factors that led to the depletion of forest resources includes inadequate scientific and technical inputs; staff lacking the necessary skills and training to assume their expected new roles; poor investment in forest development; and damage from mining, irrigation projects, industries, roads; and shifting cultivation. As a result, in the early 1970s, new ideas in forestry development were introduced. Therefore, a variety of activities were incorporated in social forestry initiatives, including planting trees on agricultural bunds and roadsides, creating woodlots on shared lands, and integrating local people in the gathering, processing, and management of forest products.

Management approaches to soil, including problems of soil degradation and low soil fertility, have recently undergone major changes. The earlier concept was to concentrate on achieving high levels of production from the more fertile areas, leaving the marginal lands for extensive use only. Steeply sloping and highly drought-prone areas were mostly left without any cultivation as production from these areas was hardly cost effective. Soil constraints were to be overcome by inputs like improved crop varieties, fertilizers, chemical control of pests and diseases, and the use of irrigation.

The approach of use of newly developed high yielding crop varieties, improved agronomic management practices, use of chemical fertilizers, efficient water management and timely plant protection measures has been successful in achieving large increases in crop productivity in recent years. On the other hand, continuous application of fertilizers at higher rates leads to environmental problems. Yield responses to fertilizers have declined because of soil physical degradation and micronutrient deficiencies. Above all, large numbers of poor farmers simply can neither afford high levels of fertilizers and other purchased inputs, nor do they have the capital to take on the risk involved in their use. Increasing the area under irrigation has also run into severe constraints in the form of limits to available freshwater resources.

Introduction

The horticulture sector is contributing over 30 per cent share in agricultural GDP of the country. Presently, India producing about 351.92 million tons of horticultural produce from 28.04 million hectare which has surpassed the food grain production for last five consecutive years (Anonymous, 2023). Horticulture sector has been identified by Government of India also identified horticulture as one of the vital sector for entrepreneurship development, employment generation, livelihood and nutritional security, doubling farmer’s income, achieving SDGs of the United Nations.

Fruits and vegetables have become part of a modern healthy lifestyle as they possess high amounts of minerals, especially electrolytes, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, especially antioxidants, and vitamins (Yahia et al., 2019; Krishnan Kesavan et al., 2023). In consumption, the qualities of products play a critical role in consumers’ choices, which are directly related to health problems (Tian, and Xu, 2022). Bioactive compounds are phytochemical substances present in small quantities in plant materials that can provide biological activity, being generally associated with health benefits, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic and prevention of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases (Campoli et al., 2018). Therefore, maintaining high-quality fruits and vegetables is very important for the fruit and vegetable industry. This requires some methods to evaluate the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables during their post-harvest manipulation and storage and before their industrial processing as well (Tian and Xu, 2022).

Introduction

A wide range of agricultural pesticides is currently being used in India. In the financial year of 2015, the size of the crop protection market in India was of about $4.5 billion (FICCI, 2016). A large number of these pesticides are also being used in considerable quantity on horticultural crops, including fruit crops. In general, judicious application of a pesticide following Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) does not leave its residues in crop produces above unacceptable limit. But the GAP recommendations are not available for all crop-pesticide combinations. The usage pattern of pesticides also sometimes gets modified at farm level due to sudden climate changes, and under such situations, the indiscriminate use of pesticides to combat disease and insect complex might result in the contamination of pesticides in fruits.

1. Introduction

For actively participating in today's global information society, having access to information and information resources is crucial. Information serves as a foundational pillar for the success of any nation, and libraries act as the primary gateways to access information. Libraries have been playing a crucial role for decades in supporting educational, learning, and research activities, as well as catering to the diverse informational requirements of individuals. However, changes in the form and formats of documents as well as diverse needs of users, pose new challenges for libraries in meeting these dynamic needs of their users. Libraries must now reconsider their roles and duties, designing a variety of new innovative services that are crucial for providing value-added, needs-based support to the society. Societal progress depends on research, often described as the lifeblood of communities, as it is vital for offering solutions to various problems.Traditionally, libraries have provided their patrons with information resources. However, in addition to these resources, libraries must now offer a range of services to support the research endeavors of scholars and researchers. In essence, while libraries have historically played a significant role in supporting research, they now must take an active role from the inception of research activities to the dissemination and formal publication of research findings. Achieving this requires not only the redesigning of library services but also the development of new skills among library professionals to proficiently navigate through the flood of information, useadvanced information and communication technologies effectively and offer comprehensive research support services (RSS) to user community.

1. Introduction

The Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science (ODLIS) defines best practice as, “in the application of theory to real-life situations, procedures that, when properly, applied consistently yield superior results and are therefore use as reference points in evaluation of the effectiveness of alternative methods of accomplishing the same task. Best practices are identified by examining empirical evidence of success”. Commonly, best practices are those services, which satisfy the respective users’ community on their desired level. Earlier, best practice term was used in the manufacturing industries for implementation of benchmarking methods so that ultimate quality results may be achieved. But later on the term “best practice” has also been used in academia and other fields as well. The mandate of any library is to work according to the informational needs of the user’s and other facilities, which are desired by the users. The service delivery pattern has totally been changed gradually due to the technological impacts and ever changing needs of the users. Now library users’ wants quality information services, which satisfy their needs so it becomes necessary for any library to provide the satisfactory services in the best and desired way. Best practices can play a major role in the comprehensive development of any academic institute and the agricultural university libraries are not exception to it.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, libraries were considered book storage facilities for kings and other prominent members of society. However, the idea of conventional libraries was altered with the advent of ICT.The development of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and information technology (IT) are assisting in increasing f inancing for studies on creating, accessing, and administeringelectronic information resources. As a result, a new era of digital and virtual libraries has emerged. These technological developments have made it possible for a new generation of information professionals to successfully select, organize, retrieve, and communicate digital content to their target audience (Nazim & Saraf, n.d.). The concept emerged again when computers were connected to tremendous networks to create education and research cantered on creating digital libraries accessible to anybody all over the World. Terms like "virtual library", "electronic library", "library without walls”,and "digital library" have been used to characterize this broad concept (Cleveland, n.d.). Digital Libraries are enormous collections of organized information resources. Elegant “Digital Library” software can enable everyone to perceive, organize, develop, and disseminate new information collection.Libraries have long been seen as safeguards of information, having developed over centuries from private repositories of manuscripts to community centres teeming with activity and education. This evolution has accelerated in the digital age, forcing libraries to negotiate the challenging flows of digital evolution.

1. Introduction

Climate change includes higher temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, alterations in the frequency and distribution of weather events such as droughts, storms, floods, and heatwaves, sea-level rise, and the consequent impacts on human and natural systems (Riedy, 2018). Climate is the average weather in a given area over a longer time. A description of climate includes information on, for example, “the average temperature in different seasons, rainfall, and sunshine. Also, a description of the chance of experiencing extremes is often included. Climate change is any systematic change in the long-term statistics of climate variables such as temperature, precipitation, pressure, or wind sustained over several decades or longer. Climate change can be due to natural external forcings (changes in solar emission or changes in the Earth’s orbit, natural internal processes of the climate system), or it can be human-induced” (Buonocore, 2022).

Camera Technology Overview

A camera is a device used to capture and store images and videos, either digitally through an electronic image sensor or chemically using a light sensitive material like photographic film. This technology has been crucial in the fields of photography and videography, significantly impacting visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. Since its invention in the 19th century, the camera has undergone numerous technological advancements, resulting in a diverse range of types and models in the 21st century.

Colouring Agents
Colouring agents are called as pigments. Tissues may be discoloured (e.g. 
Jaundice, tattoo) or excessively coloured (e.g. Melanosis) in diseases.
Origin
• External or exogenous pigments
• Internal or endogenous pigments
Exogenous Pigmentations
In exogenous pigmentations colouring substances can enter the body by three different routes.
• Respiratory route by inhalation
• Alimentary route by ingestion
• Cutaneous route by injection

Developmental Anomalies

Hereditary anemia

Hereditary anemia has been reported in mice due to defects in erythropoiesis or reduced vitality of erythrocytes. Erythropenia along with leucopenia occurs in mouse foetus on 20th day of gestation due to defective autosomal chromosome 4. Sex linked anemia in mouse is hypochromic with deficient bone marrow and occurs in hemizygus males or homozygus females. This anemia occurs due to deficiency of iron as a result of poor absorption from gastrointestinal tract.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia in foals

It occurs due to incompatible blood group antigens of male and female parents. The mare does not have that blood group antigen but foetus acquires it from father. The foetal blood exposed to dam through placental exchanges leads to induction of antibody production in mares against foetal blood group antigen. These antibodies accumulate in colustrum and when foal suck the milk from mares, they are readily absorbed through G.I. tract of foals in blood and cause destruction of erythrocytes leading to anemia.

Developmental Anomalies

Aplasia

Absence of one or both kidneys. Absence of one kidney is observed in animals with compensatory hypertrophy of another kidney and such animals may survive well.

Hypoplasia

The size of kidneys remains small as they don’t grow properly due to defect in a single recessive autosomal gene.

Cyst in kidney

Single or multiple cysts in pig and dog kidney are reported with tinged yellow colour. They may arise from nephron due to its distension. Presence of multiple cysts is also termed as congenital polycystic kidney.

Type-I cysts are formed due to dilation and hyperplasia of collecting tubules resulting in spongiform kidneys. In such neonates cystic bile ducts are also present.

The exchange of ions (cations or anions) are important phenomena in soil for the growth and nutrition of the crops. The oppositely charged ions are being adsorbed by the clay colloids which are subjected to be released or exchanged reversibly from the soil solution. The participating ions in the exchange process are called exchangeable or counter ions. The activity of ions depends on the pH of the soil. Hence, factors like, soil texture, organic matter, concentration of ions could govern the ion exchange phenomena in soil.

6.0 Ion Exchange

Ion exchange is a reversible process where exchange of ions are possible between the two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a complex. The ion exchange processes help in purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions. The ion-exchange resins (functionalized porous or gel polymer), zeolites, montmorillonite, clay and soil humus are considered as typical ion exchangers which are either cation exchangers [exchanging positively charged ions (cations)], or anion exchangers [which can exchange negatively charged ions (anions)].

1.1 Introduction

Temperate fruits are those fruits that are adapted to the temperate climate where the winter is distinctly cold. They can tolerate both diurnal and seasonal wide fluctuation of temperature and are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold. They require exposure to specific chilling temperature for certain period to break bud dormancy and initiate bud break. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher elevation as they can withstand frost. Their cultivation is confined to Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh; they are also grown to a small extent, at suitable elevations in south India as in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. They shed the leaves during winter and remain in dormant condition throughout the winter. The most economically important temperate fruits belong to Rosaceae family and includes peach, pear, cherries, almond, apple, apricot, plums, raspberries and strawberries (Ferree and Warrington, 2003). Among them apple is the dominant temperate fruit with greater than 71 million tonnes of global production. It was perceived as native to Central Asia and now grown in many countries across the world (Janick et al., 1996; FAO, 2009).

3.1 Introduction

Pear (Pyrus spp.) is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. It is one of the important fruits of the temperate and sub-temperate zones. In India, among temperate fruits, pear is next to apple in importance, acreage, production and varietal wealth. It is grown from warm humid sub tropical plains to cold dry temperate regions of India. In the world, pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc. Pear fruits are generally sweeter and of softer texture than apples and are distinguished by the presence of hard cells in the flesh, the so-called grit, or stone cells. In general, pear fruits are elongate, being narrow at the stem end and broader at the opposite end.

4.1 Introduction

Peach is temperate and economically important fruit species and is in third position among temperate fruits after apple and pear. The peach, and its smooth skinned mutant, the nectarine, are primarily grown in temperate zones of the world. Peach belongs to the family Rosaceae and is native to China (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). Peach was also called as Persian apple and was probably carried from China to Persia (Iran) and, thus, peach quickly spread from there to Europe (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). In India, it is grown in the mid-hill zone of the Himalayas extending from Jammu & Kashmir to Khasi hills up to an elevation of 2000 m above mean sea level (Meitei et al. 2013). It is one of the most important stone fruits grown in Punjab, Haryana and the adjacent areas of Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Because of its refreshing, health promoting and delicious qualities, peach fruit is popular all over Northern India. There are many types of peaches. The free-stone types, which have melting yellow or white flesh, are usually consumed fresh and the second one, the cling-stone types with rubbery flesh, are used in processing; the nectarine, which is characterized by non-fuzzy skin, resulted from a mutation, and Peento, a flat peach with a saucer shape, is another variant. It is also a rich source of vitamin A, iron and proteins. Peaches are eaten fresh, canned or dried and are excellent sources of fibre, vitamins and antioxidants The peach kernel oil is utilized in manufacturing of a large number of cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Nectarines, scientifically known as Prunus persica var. nucipersica, are commonly known as stone fruits which bears fruits similar to peaches but is smooth and lacks hairy fuzzy feature of peaches.

8.1 Introduction

The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry) is one of the most preferred soft and attractive, tasty and nutritious fruit with a distinct and pleasant aroma, and delicate flavour. The fruit of strawberry is technically known as an accessory fruit and the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries (achenes) but from receptacle. The common cultivated strawberry (Fragaria ×ananassa Duch.) is a widely grown hybrid plant resulting from the cross between two American species, Fragaria chiloensis of western North and South America and Fragaria virginiana of eastern North America. Its name has been derived from farmers mulching called “Straw”, earlier the strawberries were just planted for medicinal purpose but later on Carlus Linneaus for the first time introduced strawberry as edible fruit (Lieten et al., 1995). Strawberry is herbaceous perennial. It is an aggregate accessory fruit (not a berry indeed), meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries of the flower but from the receptacle, that holds the ovaries. Each apparent seed (properly named achene) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it. This fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in large quantities, either fresh or in prepared foods such as preserves, fruit juice, pies, ice creams, milk shakes, and other desserts (FAO, 2012).

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakai) is an important cucurbit crop throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe. It is an annual creeping vine and native to the Southern part of Africa, most probably the areas around the Kalahari Desert. Presently, more than 1200 cultivars have been developed and are being grown in nearly 122 countries with tropical and subtropical climates. Watermelon is mainly valued for its ripe ‘pepo’ fruits which are consumed as fresh-cut dessert or as juice. The fruits are a rich source of carotenoids, minerals, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamin C and Citrulline, a non-essential amino acid. The red colour of the watermelon flesh is due to the presence of lycopene, the content of which is 40% more than that of tomato. Besides, there is good variation available for f lesh colour ranging from red, pink, yellow, orange, white and green. Owing to the ability to prevent several chronic diseases due to the presence of pigments like lycopene, anthocyanin, carotene, xanthophyll etc., presently watermelon is also considered as a functional food. The exocarp (rind) is also consumed as stewed, pickled or stir-fried or may be used for the preparation of ‘tooty fruity’. Watermelon seeds are considered a good omen and are gifted during Chinese New Year in East Asia. The seeds are also used in the baking and confectionary industries as these contain a characteristic nutty flavour. The seeds are also rich in protein, vitamins as well as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

Insect pests are responsible for 10.8% of crop losses on an average. Their management is crucial in agriculture to protect crops and boost output. In organic farming systems, preventative measures are taken more often than curative. Understanding the impacts that the local climate, topography, soils, and all other facets of the production system are expected to have on crop performance and potential host/pest complexes is essential for developing successful organic crop protection techniques. Crop rotation, soil health management, host plant resistance, field location, monitoring pests and their natural enemies, vegetation management to enhance natural enemies and exert direct effects on pest populations, releases of bio-control agents and use of approved insecticides of biological origin are highlighted in organic farming in order to reduce pest damage. The safe and environmentally friendly methods for managing the pests in organic farming are discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

The fundamental tenet of organic pest management is the use of environmentally sound measures as outlined by worldwide and national organic agricultural standards. The emphasis of organic farming's pest management strategies is on the employment of numerous and diverse strategies integrated into the cropping system, which ultimately lowers the pest incidence. Pest and disease options mainly dependent on preventive measures in organic farming rather than curative and maintaining healthy ecosystems is priority. The farmer should have a better grasp of the pests and beneficial organisms that exist in the specific crop ecology when practising organic farming. The farmers must follow a monitoring mechanism in which they may able to act on the pest before they reach devastating levels.

1. Introduction

Organic farming is gaining a lot of importance in recent years owing to raising awareness among the consumers of the agricultural commodities about the health concerns of the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Anonymous 2015; Lakhsman et al., 2024). The increasing demand for organically produced agricultural commodities and the premier prices have attracted the farmers’ interest and motivated them to switch over to organic production systems. The shifting to organic farming by the farmers needs careful consideration of several issues starting from the suitability of soils, selection of crops, adoption of package of practices, processing, storage and marketing. There are several finer aspects which the farmers have to gloss over before they decide to change their production system to organic farming. Although the broad contours are known to all the farmers, there is a need to look into the research findings in the areas of farmers’ interest for changing over to organic farming. The research evidence on the practical viability in a newer area will boost the confidence of the farming community for undertaking the organic farming. It further helps in systematic planning by the policy makers. The traditional research carried out with the modern agricultural practices may not be appropriate for organic farming. There are fundamental differences in the approaches followed in the organic farming research where the emphasis is on using all the natural resources in a complementary way so that there is hardly any need for synthetic inputs in the form of fertilizers and pesticides. It calls for systematic inventorization of resources available and additional organic inputs needed to make organic farming successful. It begins with assessing the suitability of soils, agro-climatic conditions, selection of crops, adoption of management practices, harvesting, processing, storage and marketing of organically-produced food commodities. The practical feasibility, economic viability and social acceptability of organic farming in newer areas need to be established through sound organic farming research before it is taken to the farming community.

3.1 Entrepreneurship

3.1.1 The Concept and Definitions

Entrepreneurship is the active search for possibilities using originality and innovation. Taking prudent risks, effectively mobilising and managing resources, and adjusting to shifting market conditions are all part of it. By adding value and having a beneficial effect, entrepreneurs want to expand both commercially and socially.

3.1.2 Meaning of Entrepreneur

The French word "Entrepredre," which means "to undertake" is where the name "Entrepreneur" got its etymological roots. It was originally used to refer to a commander or planner of military missions in France during the 16th century when the phrase first gained popularity.

An entrepreneur is someone who has the knowledge, drive, and vision necessary to launch, run, and succeed in a new business venture while accepting the risks involved in doing so with the intention of making a profit. A common illustration of entrepreneurship is the act of founding a new company. Entrepreneurs are acknowledged as sources of innovation since they bring new concepts and creations to market, frequently displacing preexisting ones.

The plant variety is related to intellectual property that needs to be protected for controlled commercial unitization for a specified period. New plant varieties development requires scientific skill, knowledge, significant investment of land and specialized equipments. These varieties are cultivated by farmers in their adaptive region. In development of new variety 10 to 15 years are required. If developed variety successfully commercialized on farmer’s field, then the market business is much higher than input investment. The major issue in developed variety that can be easily reproduced by someone without permission of original breeder. Thus, the original breeder deprived for their f inancial benefit. It is, therefore, critical to provide an effective system of plant variety protection, which encourages the development of new varieties of plants thereby benefiting the breeder and society at large. The sustainable and long-term breeding effort for development of new varieties needs encouragement and financial reward for investing time and skills. To secure legal protection of the developed variety breeder needs to obtained exclusive right from government.After establishment of WTO in 1995 under TRIP the right to protect plant varieties become mandatory for signatory country. It has also realised that existence of the private seed industry, the protection of plant varieties become necessity.

Introduction

Since 2001, India’s human beings population has crossed 1000 million, which is presently 1361 million and will became more than 1462 million during 2025. Such a large population of human beings can be fed and clothed only if we make the best use of the country’s land and water resources. While water is replenishable natural resource. Contrary to this, the land is a non-renewable and irreplaceable resource. It, therefore, becomes an imperative to think of about the main problems of protecting/preserving and managing the land resources f irst of all and thereafter managing the water resources. Such an approach will, infant, prove a solution of both of these resources. It is because if the land of the country is looked after properly, the problem of water management would be automatically tackled (Singh, 2007)

Out of the total land area of India, about 329 million hectares (m ha) as many as175 m ha suffer from degradation, caused for the most part by the soil erosion, water logging, soil salinity and sodicity as well as acidity. This denotes that on an average at least two out of every 3 acres (1.2 ha) of land is in poor condition. It is also known that at least half of the sick land i.e., one third of the total is almost completely unproductive. Another one third is partially productive and it is only the remaining one third is in good health.

The research locale is a crucial aspect of any research study because it can have a significant impact on the data collected, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn from the research. The selection of the research locale should be based on the research questions, objectives, and methodology of the study. The characteristics of the research locale such as its physical, social, cultural, and economic attributes, and the population being studied, can affect the research outcomes.

To accurately understand and interpret the data, used in social science research, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the attitude, behaviour and characteristics of the individuals who live in the area being studied. This section of the research critically examines the socio-demographic background of local people in a rural setting. The research setting refers to the context in which the research is conducted, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the interplay of different factors and components that influence the study’s outcomes. The research setting is essential because it provides a contextual framework that helps to inform the researcher’s interpretation of the data. By understanding the characteristics and context of the research area, the researcher can more accurately conceptualize and interpret the data, leading to a more nuanced understanding of the implications and behavioural complexities of the individual and the larger community.

Introduction

Digitalization is transforming the digital economy, offering opportunities for entrepreneurs and businesses, and transforming production and trade. The rapid advancement of technology and information systems has led to significant changes in both individuals and companies, particularly in the realm of digitalization in commerce (BarNir et al., 2003). Digitalization uses digital technologies to revolutionize business models, simplify transactions, and enhance value-producing opportunities in processes like customer service, shipping, buying, and selling (Zhang et al., 2013). All over the world, businesses are transitioning from manual to e-commerce for benefits such as efficiency, productivity, security, competitiveness, cost reduction, marketing, promotion, and information distribution (Daniel & Wilson, 2002; Gefen, 2000). E-commerce, a key feature, is reshaping global production and trade (Koh et al., 2017; Scalco, 2017). Moreover, the e-commerce industry has seen a substantial transition over the last few decades, due to rapid technical improvements and shifting customer behaviors.

Introduction

Chemical exposure in the workplace is a prevalent concern across various industries, including manufacturing, agriculture, healthcare, and construction. These exposures can range from acute to chronic and involve many substances, from heavy metals and solvents to pesticides and industrial chemicals. While the physical health effects of chemical exposure are well-documented, the psychological impacts are less understood but equally significant. Psychological stress is a response to perceived threats or challenges characterized by physical, emotional, and cognitive symptoms. Theories such as the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping by Lazarus and Folkman emphasize the role of individual perception and coping mechanisms in stress experiences.

The modern industrial landscape is characterized by ubiquitous chemicals, ranging from benign substances to potentially hazardous compounds. As industries strive for higher productivity and efficiency, the workforce is frequently exposed to various chemicals. This exposure is not without consequences; while the physical health effects of chemical exposure have been extensively studied, the psychological impacts are less understood. Emerging research indicates that chemical exposure can significantly contribute to psychological stress, affecting worker health, productivity, and overall well being.