eChapters

Abstract

Bioinformatics, an integrated science of biology and informatics is a repository of new emerging dimensions like proteome, genome, drug discovery etc, whose concepts have varied applications in various sciences/areas including agricultural/horticultural sciences. Bioinformatics tools are employed to investigate interactions between different biological systems i.e. gene-gene, protein-protein, gene-protein interactions and this information has tremenduous application in agricultural/horticultural sciences. It is the computer aided  data handling approach to understand the life process precisely. Biological problem require innovative database prospective for gene sequencing (management and alignment), recognition of genes and regulatory elements, protein structure prediction, evolution and phylogenetic studies, etc.

Phenol is normally a benzene ring containing an –OH group, and hence an aromatic alcohol. The term phenolic refers to similar aromatic compounds with one or more -OH groups. Phenolics constitute one of the most widespread classes of secondary metabolites. Commonly talked about class of compounds like anthocyanins, flavonoids, lignins, tannins, coumarins and chalcones are all phenolic substances. Phenolics are water insoluble substances. However, the water solubility increases with the increase in the number of -OH groups. Phenolics absorb electromagnetic radiation strongly. Many of the phenolics absorb in the visible part of the spectrum (Ex. anthocyanins) and are coloured. Phenolics are produced in plants by 1. Shikimate pathway through phenylalanine (C6.C3)  and 2. Acetate/ malonate pathway.

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen.

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80^oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

5.1. Nature and role of soil enzymes
    General account
    Role in terrestrial ecosystems
    Role in aquatic ecosystems

5.2. Environmental conditions and microbial enzyme activity

Chemistry of vegetable crops

Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition supplying some of the materials, which other food materials are lacking. Vegetables are important in neutralizing the acidity formed during digestion. They also serve as roughages in human nutrition and thus helping digestion.

They are the important sources of minerals like Ca, P and Fe. They also form an important source of vitamins, especially vitamin A. Green and yellow vegetables like carrot, turnip, spinach, beans, etc. contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A. Direct seed of beans, peas, and legumes contain appreciable amounts of proteins. Vegetables also contain sufficient amounts of vitamin C and also appreciable quantities of thiamine, niacin and folic acid. Tomatoes and potatoes contain fairly high amounts of vitamin C.

The planning of a garden is an art. It is said that a poet is born, and in that sense a garden architect is also born. But that does not mean that a garden architect has nothing to learn. On the contrary he should learn enough of geology, geography, garden history, styles of gardening, and above all should have a profound knowledge about plants. It is imperative to know at the outset what is meant by landscape gardening. A landscape may be defined as any area, either big or small, on which it is possible or desirable to mould view or a design, whereas landscape gardening may be described as the application of garden forms, methods, and materials with a view to improving the landscape. The art of designing is known as “landscape architecture,” although the older term landscape gardening” is also popular.

Before discussing the principles of gardening in detail, it will be worthwhile to make some useful suggestions. The first and the foremost thing are not to imitate another garden which has secured a prize in a competition. One has to develop one’s own design giving due consideration to the local conditions. One more mistake which is commonly made is to plant many more specimens than a garden can accommodate causing overcrowding. In a landscape garden any difference in levels has to be taken advantage of, but in a perfectly flat land it will be costly to create artificial undulations. In each garden the care should be at least one feature or there be a second these two should harmonize with each other. Before planning a design are must be sure for what purpose the garden is utility or beauty or both.

World Scenario

The world climatic conditions are divided into Tropical; Sub-Tropical and Temperate climates. Fruits and Vegetables suited to these climatic conditions are grown successfully. Considering the nutritional and economic importance of fruits and vegetables, there is tremendous increase in area and production of fruits and vegetables throughout the world. The present global scenario of fruit and vegetable crops (areas harvested, production and productivity (yield) has been given in Table 1. It shows that the fruits 865.88 million tones has been harvested from 65.24 million Ha land with productivity 13.27 t/ha (Table 1) where as vegetables produced 1075.20 million tonnes from area 57.00 million ha with yield 18.86 tonnes/ha (Table 1) during 2016.

While developing the toolkit for Participatory Curriculum Development participatory approaches like Focus Group Discussions and Field Level Workshops were adopted. The goal is to provide demand-driven services and to do so, extension professionals need to respond for farmers’ requests rather than deliver predetermined packaged solutions. It is also time to enable the farmers to empower and make their voices heard. Equally important is to make the service providers accountable to the farmers, which is possible when the farmers pay for the services they receive.

Concentrated milk products are obtained through partial removal of water which increases the dry matter content of milk. The increase in dry matter content in concentrated milk is proportional to the degree of concentration. The milk concentrate may be prepared from either full-cream whole milk or fat-free skim milk.

Depending on the nature of raw material and other non-milk additives concentrated milks are classified into four broad categories.

1. Sweetened condensed milk

2. Evaporated milk or unsweetened condensed milk

3. Sterile milk concentrate

4. Reconstituted concentrated milk

Sweetened Condensed Milk

One of the earliest dairy products to be produced industrially is sweetened condensed milk. According to FSSA (2006), sweetened condensed milk is the product obtained by partial removal of water from the milk of cow/buffalo with the addition of sugar or a combination of sucrose with other sugars or by any other process that leads to a product of the same composition and characteristics. The fat and/or protein content of the milk may be adjusted by the addition and/or withdrawal of milk constituents in such a way as not to alter the whey protein to casein ratio of the milk being adjusted. It shall have a pleasant taste and flavor and be free from off-flavor and rancidity. It shall be free from any substance foreign to milk. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirement as laid down by FSSA. The said product shall also conform to the following requirements

Contagious

Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is an infectious disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma sp. and characterized by cuprous pneumonia, pleurisy and dilation of lymph vessels (Fig.5.1).

Etiology

• Mycoplasma mycoides

Pathogenesis

The infection spreads through inhalation of droplets from infected animals. The recovered animals act as source of infection at least for a period of 3 years. After entering through respiratory tract the organism reaches to bronchioles. It may remain in retropharyngeal gland from where it may spread in whole body. The organism from bronchioles enter into interlobular septa and causes inflammation followed by edema which causes dilation and subsequent thrombosis of lymph and blood vessels prior to development of pneumonic lesions. Death occurs due to anoxia and toxaemia.

Essential, volatile or ethereal oils are mixtures composed of volatile liquid and solid compounds which vary widely in regard to their composition and boiling points. Plants owe their fragrance to presence of traces of essential oils in different parts. Numerous fragrance materials are present in roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and heartwoods.     
Several processes like distillation, enfleurage, maceration, expression, solvent extraction and fluid extraction are available for extraction of aroma principles. Application of these processes, either singly or in combination depends upon nature of material and essential oil or absolute intended to be recovered.

Plant pigments impart colour to the different components like leaves, flowers, fruits etc. They in turn are responsible for the colour of raw food, we eat. Pigments like chlorophyll, anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins, xanthones etc. are the different pigments that are present in plants. The primary function of pigments in plants is photosynthesis, which uses the green pigment chlorophyll along with several red and yellow pigments that help to capture as much light energy as possible. Other functions of pigments in plants include attracting insects to flowers to encourage pollination.

5.1 Introduction

The chapter describes the development of local web server on the laptop, to control the actuator from the server. Web server is used as remote control for the system. The system is designed to control water pump with respect to the soil sensor values. It comprises of NodeMCU, soil sensor, LCD, two relay boards for pump in and out the water from field.

Teratology : is the study of abnormal development. If the malformation involves an organ or only a portion of the body, it is called an anomaly. If it is so extensive great deformity of the individual occurs when the animal is designated a monster.

etiological basis of teratology : All teratogenic agents directly or indirectly ar;ect the process of cell differentiation. These agents are divided into two broad categories i.e genetic or Intrinsic factors and environmental or extrinsic factors.

Genetic or Intrinsic factors : There are several types of genetic factors that result in abnormal development.

Radish (Raphanus sativus) is a cool weather crop and its origin is in Mediterranean, rapid growing annual or biennial plant belongs to family Brassicaceae, grown for its edible taproot. Its edible roots are having different color from as white to red. Radish is generally grown as an annual plant, surviving only one growing season. It is crop of tropical and temperate region. It is growing as herb in West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab and Assam areas are major radish growing states. Radish is good source of vitamin B6, Calcium, copper, magnesium and riboflavin. Also it is rich in ascorbic acid, folic acid and potassium.

Alternaria Blight

Economic Importance

Alternaria leaf spot diseases occur in every part of the world, in both vegetable crops and seed crops and most important disease of Brassica species, often results in severe yield losses. It is considered as a number one disease of radish affecting both fresh vegetable and seed production. The disease is more severe when the plants are left for seed production in the field and causes significant reduction in seed yield. Alternaria black spot of radish; black pod blotch of radish. A. japonica is a seed-borne pathogen of plants in the Brassicaceae. A. japonica is known to affect most parts of infected plants depending upon growth stage. There are reports of it on the hypocotyls and cotyledons of seedlings and on the leaves, petioles, stem, inflorescence, fruits (siliquae) and seeds of adult plants. A. japonica occurs in all parts of radish (Raphanus sativus) seed. Its presence in the embryo can result in seed death, but in milder infections it will affect seedlings after germination, causing seedling blight both before and after emergence.

Commercially, one of the most significant milk products is ice cream. It is a frozen product which is usually made from milk or cream that has been f lavored with fruits like peaches or strawberries, and spices like vanilla or cocoa, or with sugar or a substitute. Stabilizers are sometimes combined with food coloring. Ice cream mix typically contains 10.0% milk fat, 11.0% solids not-fat, 14.0% added sugar, and 0.3% additives like an emulsifier, stabilizer, f lavor, and color substances.

Standard of Ice Cream

According to FSSA (2006), ice cream, kulfi, chocolate ice cream or softy ice cream means the product obtained by freezing pasteurized milk prepared from milk and/or other products derived from milk with the addition of sweetening agents and fruit products, egg products, coffee, cocoa, ginger, and nuts. It may also contain chocolate, and bakery products such as cake or cookies as a separate layer and/or coating. It may be frozen hard or frozen to a soft consistency. It shall be free from artificial sweeteners. It shall have a pleasant taste and smell free from flavor and rancidity. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirements as given in FSSA (2006).

Crop Production

Crop production refers to the cultivation and management of plants for the purpose of generating agricultural yields. It encompasses a wide range of activities, starting from land preparation and seed selection to harvesting and post-harvest handling. Crop production involves the application of scientific principles, traditional knowledge, and modern technologies to optimize plant growth, minimize losses, and maximize yields. The goal of crop production is not only to meet the demands for food, fibre, and fuel but also to do so in a sustainable manner that preserves the health of the soil, water resources, and surrounding ecosystems. It is a fundamental component of agriculture, playing a pivotal role in sustaining human life and supporting economic development around the globe.

Principles of Crop Production and Management

The principles of crop production encapsulate the fundamental guidelines and practices that govern the cultivation and management of crops. These principles serve as a framework for farmers to optimize agricultural productivity, sustainability, and profitability. Here are some key principles:

1. Soil Health: Healthy soil forms the foundation of successful crop production. Principles related to soil health emphasize the importance of maintaining soil fertility, structure, and biological activity. Practices such as soil testing, organic matter incorporation, and conservation tillage are employed to enhance soil health and productivity. Soil health is a foundational principle in the realm of crop production, influencing every aspect of plant growth and agricultural sustainability. Healthy soil serves as a reservoir of essential nutrients, a habitat for beneficial microorganisms, and a medium for root development. The principles of soil health emphasize the importance of maintaining soil fertility, structure, and biological activity through practices such as organic matter incorporation, conservation tillage, and cover cropping. By replenishing organic matter, optimizing soil structure, and fostering a diverse microbial community, farmers can enhance soil health and productivity. Soil testing is another key principle, enabling farmers to assess nutrient levels, pH balance, and other soil properties, guiding the application of fertilizers and soil amendments. Moreover, conservation practices such as crop rotation, agroforestry, and erosion control help protect soil from degradation, preserving its long-term productivity and resilience. Embracing these principles of soil health not only promotes higher crop yields but also mitigates environmental impacts, enhances water retention, and fosters ecosystem biodiversity, laying the groundwork for sustainable agriculture now and in the future.

In Vedas the cow has been regarded as the mother of Rudras, the daughter of Vashu and the sister of Aditayas and also the use of cow ghee in religious ceremonies had been mentioned in Rig Veda and there is mention of the cow as “Kam Dhenu” in ancient writings. In Shiva temples are found the references of sculpture of “Nandi Bulls”. In Hindu mythology, the male buffalo thought to be the vehicle of the God of death “Yama” and also regarded as physical form of the demon Mahishasur, a symbol of inertia-”Tamas”.

Sterols are derivatives of a complex ring system called cyclopentano perhydro phenanthrene. The term sterol means solid alcohol. Sterols, though alcohols, are solids with a M.P. of 100-120^ºC. The 27 carbon atoms impart hydrocarbon character, namely, solubility in non-polar solvents. Free sterols in plants are mono hydroxy  secondary alcohols varying in the constitution of methyl or ethyl group and in double bonds. Cholesterol, ergosterol, bile acids, sex harmones, cortical harmones and D-vitamins are some of the sterol derivatives.
   
The most widely distributed sterols in higher plants are the C₂₉ sterols, stigmasterol, β sitosterol and g sitosterol. Together, they are called steroids. In plants, steroids are present as glycosides. Cholesterol was first isolated from gall stones. The word cholesterol means “solid alcohol from bile”. Bile is a fluid which is formed and stored in the gall bladder. It aids in the digestion of fats in the digestive tract. Sterols form an important group among the steroids. Unsaturated steroids with most of the skeleton of cholestane containing a 3β-hydroxyl group and an aliphatic side chain of 8 or more carbon atoms attached to position 17 form the group of sterols.