eChapters

PCR Principles and Procedure

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique that allows the generation of large amounts of a single DNA sequence from a mixture of sequences; the fragment generated can be designed to contain specific starting and ending positions based on the needs of the experiment. PCR is used to amplify specific regions of a DNA strand (the DNA target). This can be a single gene, a part of a gene, or a non-coding sequence. Most PCR methods typically amplify DNA fragments of up to 10 kilo base pairs (kb), although some techniques allow for amplification of fragments up to 40 kb in size.

A basic PCR set up requires several components and reagents. These components include:

History of PCR

A 1971 Kleppe and co-workers first described a method using an enzymatic assay to replicate a short DNA template with primers in vitro. However, this early manifestation of the basic PCR principle did not receive much attention, and the invention of the polymerase chain reaction in 1983 is generally credited to Kary Mullis.

At the core of the PCR method is the use of a suitable DNA polymerase able to withstand the high temperatures of >90°C (>195°F) required for separation of the two DNA strands in the DNA double helix after each replication cycle. The DNA polymerases initially employed for in vitro experiments presaging PCR were unable to withstand these high temperatures. So the early procedures for DNA replication were very inefficient, time consuming, and required large amounts of DNA polymerase and continual handling throughout the process.

The discovery in 1976 of Taq polymerase (a DNA polymerase purified from the thermophilic bacterium, Thermus aquaticus, which naturally occurs in hot (50 to 80 °C (120 to 175 °F) environments) paved the way for dramatic improvements of the PCR method. The DNA polymerase isolated from T. aquaticus is stable at high temperatures remaining active even after DNA denaturation, thus obviating the need to add new DNA polymerase after each cycle. This allowed an automated thermocycler-based process for DNA amplification.

Developed the PCR in 1984 by Kary Mullis, PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in medical and biological research labs for a variety of applications. These include DNA cloning for sequencing, DNA-based phylogeny, or functional analysis of genes; the diagnosis of hereditary diseases; the identification of genetic fingerprints (used in forensic sciences and paternity testing); and the detection and diagnosis of infectious diseases. In 1993 Mullis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on PCR.

Polymeric nanoparticles are nanoparticles which are prepared from polymers. The drug is dissolved, entrapped, encapsulated or attached to nanoparticles and depending upon the method of preparation, nanoparticles, nanospheres or nanocapsules can be obtained. Nanocapsules are vesicular systems in which the drug is confined to a cavity surrounded by a polymer membrane, while nanospheres are matrix systems in which the drug is physically and uniformly dispersed.

In recent years, biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention as potential drug delivery devices in view of their applications in drug targeting to particular organs/tissues, as carriers of DNA in gene therapy, and in their ability to deliver proteins, peptides and genes through oral route of administration.

In spite of development of various synthetic and semi synthetic polymers, natural polymers still enjoy their popularity in drug delivery, some of them are: gums (Eg. Acacia, Guar, etc.,) chitosan, gelatin, sodium alginate, and albumin. A range of materials have been employed to delivery of bioactive agents. A polymer used in controlled drug delivery formulation, must be chemically inert, non-toxic and free of leachable impurities. It must also have an appropriate physical structure, with minimal undesired aging, and be readily processable. Some of the polymeric materials are: cellulosics., poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate), poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(acrylic acid), polyacrylamide, poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate), poly(ethylene glycol), poly(methacrylic acid).

Microsatellites are highly polymorphic repetitive DNA sequences that are randomly distributed throughout eukaryotic genomes displaying high levels of variation and consequently, are ideal for deciphering genetic variability. They are having high mutation rates (1-4 per generation). Among the microsatellite, (CA) n repeats occurring about one in every 30 kb of mammalian genome constitute useful genetic markers, as their polymorphism is sufficiently stable and their mutation rate are low enough. Out of innumerable microsatellite, ZuBeCa3 microsatellite shows huge variability in the canine genome (Switonski and others 1998). This microsatellite is located in chromosome 9q21-q22 and vastly studied in different dog breeds depicting its heterogeneous distribution over the chromosome (Switonski and others 1998).

Any organism with other than two basic sets of chromosomes, that is, monoploid, triploid, tetraploid, and various aneuploids is termed as polyploid. There are several economically important crops which are natural polyploids emphasizing the economic importance of polyploids in agriculture. These are:

Triploid-Banana

Autotetraploid-Alfalfa, potato, coffee, peanut or groundnut Autohexaploid- Sweet potato

Amphidiploid/allopolyploid-Wheat, cotton, oats, Brassica species (B. carinata- Ethiopian mustard, B. juncea-Indian mustard, B. napus--rapeseed), sugarcane

Man-made commercially successful allopolyploid- Triticale

The newly synthesized autopolyploids, having few or more undesirable features, e. g; meiotic instability, low seed setting and late maturity etc, are usually not suitable for immediate commercial use, are known as raw polyploids. This is specifically more applicable for those sexually propogated polyploids which are developedfor seed. In early generations due to polyploid chromosome constitution and polysomic inheritance they predominanantly do not breed true. Further more, due to meiotic instability chromosome number in their progeny is not always constant or equal to as in synthesized autotetraploid which may vary from few more to few less than the standard autotetraploid. The raw polyploids usually reverts back to diploid parental constitution due chromosome elimination (Randolph and Fischer, 1939). The mechanism responsible for reverting back to diploid status is similar to that of which give rise haploids from diploids. Presently cases are known where either spontaneously or due to specific treatments the chromosome number was reduced to half in somatic tissues. The phenomenon causing such chromosomal reduction is termed as somatic reduction or reduced mitosis Earlier reports suggested it probably to be caused due to spindle organizer abnormalities or some other unknown mechanism/s. The treatment of seed or seedling by colchicine, chloramphenicol and paraflurophenylalanine are reported to have induced chromosome reduction and production of haploids.

23.1 Introduction

An organism or individual having more than two basic sets of chromosomes is called polyploid and the condition is known as polyploidy. Polyploidy is an important tool to increase genetic diversity by altering the chromosome number (2x) and consequently the number of genes within a single cell. Polyploidy has been one of the important mechanisms in the evolution of many cultivated crop plants.

23.2 Types of Polyploidy

23.2.1 Autopolyploidy

The condition that arises due to multiplication of the same chromosomes of a single species is known as autopolyploidy (also called ‘simple polyploidy’ or ‘single species polyploidy’). Autopolyploids have generally larger leaves, stem and other vegetative parts and flower, fruit and seeds than their normal diploids.

Refers to induced chromosome manipulation

Aneuploidy-One or few chromosomes extra or missing from 2n.

Autoploidy-Genomes identical with each other.

Polyploidy, the condition in which a normal diploid cell or organism acquires one or more additional sets of chromosomes. In other words, the polyploid cell or organism has three or more times the haploid chromosome number. Polyploidy arises as the result of total nondisjunction of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis. The somatic chromosome number of any species, whether diploid or polyploidy is designated as 2n. The somatic cells of plants are diploid that they posses two complete set of chromosomes, one received from seed parent and another from pollen parent. The gametic chromosome number is said to be haploid and denoted by n. Haploid is defined as cell with gametic chromosome number. While monoploid has the basic chromosome number and represented by x.

Classification of Polyploidy

Polyploids are classified in to two groups, euploidy and aneuploidy. Euploidy have chromosome number which is an exact multiple of basic number. Euploidy includes monoploids, diploids and polyploids. In aneuplod individual with other than exact multiple of basic chromosome number or change in chromosome number which posses one or few chromosomes of the genome.

Polyploid is any organism with other than two basic sets of chromosomes, that is, monoploid, triploid, tetraploid, and various aneuploids. Species that have their chromosomes as multiples of a basic number (x) are polyploids. Many of the species which have been developed most recently are polyploids. Autoploidy is not known to have significantly impacted the evolution of species. Autoploids of commercial importance include banana, a triploid which is seedless (diploid bananas have hard seeds not desirable for consumption). Other important autoploids are tetraploid crops, namely, alfalfa, peanut, potato and coffee. Spontaneous autoploids are important in horticultural crops where gigas feature has produced superior varieties of flowering ornamentals of narcissus, tulip, hyacinth, gladiolus, and dahlia among others. Triticale is the most common example of man-made cereal through allopolyploidy. A number of economically important crops are natural alloploids. These include wheat, oat, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, strawberry and blueberry, wild mustard, black mustard, rutabaga/rape, etc.

A. Define/Explain the following

1. Heteroploidy: Any change in chromosome number from the diploid state.

2. Euploidy: Numerical change in the entire genome.

Polysaccharides comprise several monosaccharide units (more than ten) linked by glycosidic bonds; therefore, they are high molecular weight carbohydrates. They are also called polyanhydrides of simple sugars. The most common monosaccharide unit of polysaccharides is D-glucose. The polysaccharides may differ in their monosaccharide units, molecular weight, chain nature, glycosidic bond types (alpha, beta), and linkages (1-2, 1-3, 1-4, or 1-6). They are tasteless, colorless, amorphous powders that are a little water-soluble. Some may form colloidal solutions. The polysaccharides provide structural stability (structural polysaccharides) to cells, prevent cells and tissues from drying out due to their water-binding properties, and reserve food for the future. Reserved polymeric carbohydrates are osmotically less active and can be stored in large quantities within the cell.
The right and left end of polysaccharides, respectively, are called the reducing and non-reducing ends. Based on the functional aspects, they are grouped in two ways.
• The first way depends on its digestibility—1. Nutrient polysaccharides are (digestible) starch, dextrin, and glycogen, and 2. Structural polysaccharides are (indigestible), chitin and cellulose.
• The second way, depending upon the constituent monosaccharide units, they are 1. Homoglycans (same units), and 2. Heteroglycans (different units).

Various insect and mite pests infest fruit and plantation crops in different stages of crop growth directly or indirectly causing significant losses, hence need their management. The major pests of different fruit and plantation crops, their identification characters, life history, nature of damage and symptoms alongwith its management practices are described crop wise:

Temperate fruits

Pome fruits and stone and nut fruits are mainly cultivated in the temperate regions, which usually requires chilling requirements. Among stone and nut fruits cherry, apricot, peach and plum are the main crops whereas among the nut fruits, walnut, almond are major crops which are a source of handsome income to the orchardists of those areas. The insect and mite pests of pome, stone and nut fruits are described hereunder:

Pomegranate  (Punica granatum L.)  also  known as anar, dalim  is   an ancient  fruit and cultivated in semi-arid to arid regions of the country. However, pomegranate plants are found throughout the country from temperate to tropical climate. It has enjoyed a reputation for its healthy dietetic and medicinal properties. Pomegranate has versatile adaptability, drought tolerance, high value fruits, steady and high yields of the crop (Vishalnath et al., 2007). The pomegranate fruit has therapeutic value (Julie Jurenka, 2008); good keeping quality, high export potential and is mainly grown for table purpose, though several value added products are also available.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) belongs to the family Punicaceae and is one of the favaourite table fruits of tropical and subtropical regions. The fresh fruit is of delicate quality while its processed products are highly appreciative. It is now extensively grown in Arid regions. Pomegranate is in fact native to Iran and is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean countries. It is distributed in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Afghanistan, Arabian countries, Pakistan, Myanmar, China, Japan, Chile, Argetina, Mexico, USA, Bulgaria, Italy, India and Iraq.

Cultivars: Important pomegranate varieties cultivated in India are Bhagwa, Ganesh, Alandi or Vadki, Dholka, Kandhari, Kabul, Muskati Red, Paper Shelled, Spanish Ruby, Ganesh (GB I), G 137, P 23, P 26, Mridula, Aarakta, Jyoti, Ruby, IIHR Selection, Yercaud 1 and Co 1.

Uses

The pomegranate is commercially grown for its sweet acidic taste arils. The fresh fruit has exquisite quality, while its processed products such as bottled juice, syrups and jelly are highly appreciated. Pomegranate is a delicious fruit consumed for its medicinal value. Its juice is sweet with pleasant aroma and is refreshing. The fruit is widely used for Ayurvedic and Unani medicines. Some of the commercial products of pomegranates are juice, squash, syrup, jelly. Anardana is obtained by drying the seed along with pulp and sun. The rind is used as a valuable tanning material. The flowers yield a red dye.

Pomegranate is emerging as one of the important fruit crops owing to its hardiness and ability to withstand adverse soil and climatic conditions. India contributes 40-45 percent of total 10 lakh tons production in the world. Currently the export of pomegranate is around 10,000 tons, which is just 5 percent of the total export. With the increase in population, the domestic demand of fruits has also increased substantially. As on date, out of total area of 1, 25,000 ha. under pomegranate, major area under the crop is found in Maharashtra. The state has 85,000 ha. (68 % area) under the crop, of which only 51,000 ha is under production, followed by Karnataka 12,727 ha. Gujarat 3,787 ha, up to 2003 –2004 (Anon, 2005). Earlier orchards were raised mainly with variety Ganesh, which was the leading variety. However, the variety is fast being replaced with the new cultivars like Bhagawa and Arakta, which have attractive skin and aril colour and are suitable for export.

The pomegranate is an ancient and favorite table fruit of tropical countries. It is commercially grown for its sweet-acidic fruits, which provide a cool refreshing juice, and is valued for its medicinal properties. The fruit rind, juice, leaf and roots are used in the preparation of various ayurvedic medicines. Its popularity is also due to ornamental nature of the plant especially due to bearing bright red flowers throughout the year. The fruit juice is refreshing and contains both glucose and fructose. The juice and seed contain large quantities of tannin and agolic acid, which is essential in curing several diseases. The fruit can be successfully grown even under purely rain fed conditions. In the recent years pomegranate cultivation has become an economically viable proposition.

1) Bacterial Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Bacterial blight of pomegranate was first reported in India from Delhi in 1952.
• First water-soaked lesions develop on fruits within 2–3 days and appear as spots.
• Initially, spots are black and round and surrounded by bacterial ooze.
• Under favorable conditions, spots enlarge to become raised, dark brown lesions with indefinite margins that cause the fruit to crack.
• Disease may cause up to 90% yield reduction (Fig.1).
Etiology
Domain : Bacteria
Phylum : Proteobacteria
Class : Gammaproteobacteria
Order : Xanthomonadales

Introduction

Pomegranate is one of the most remunerative fruit crops that grow well under arid and semi-arid agro eco-system with severe scarcity of water. The popularity of pomegranate has grown tremendously due to its health beneûts, high returns on investment, less water requirement, therapeutic and functional properties. Growing health consciousness among the consumers and acquisition of super fruit status by pomegranate has made marketing of pomegranate fruits and derived value added products quite easy. As the result of all these benefits, India is witnessing a pomegranate revolution with more than 80 % expansion in area and 250 % increase in production during last one decade. However, there are many challenges to be overcome so as to double the income of pomegranate growers, these challenges include market glut due to unprecedented increase in production coupled with limited export resulting into suboptimal price of the harvested produce; intensification of diseases and insects and pest due to huge unplanned expansion; dominance of only one variety; very limited value addition; hampered export due to suboptimal quality, unwanted sprays, issue of pesticide residues and lack of sufficient number pesticide label claims in pomegranate; inadequate supply chain management. So, in order to overcome these challenges and to increase the profitability of pomegranate stakeholders, we need to focus on scientifically sound cultivation practices to reduce the cost of cultivation, breeding for improved varieties, improved packaging, transport, storage, marketing, supply chain management, facilitating and encouraging export, practicing and promoting climate resilient horticulture, formation of farmers’ cooperatives and farmers producers organization (FPOs), processing and value addition with the aim of total utilization and use of information and communication technologies. This article deals with opportunities and strategies in pomegranate for doubling farmers’ income through nursery management; improved horticultural practices; integrated disease, insets pests and nutrient management; use of information and communication technologies; creation of FPOs; processing and value addition.

1.1 Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a well-known table fruit of tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The Romans received it from Carthage, hence the name of the genus Punica. Some botanists place it in the family Lythraceae, of the peculiar type of fruit, called as balausta, most authorities make it the only genus in the family Punicaceae. It belongs to genera Punica and family Punicaceae (Chatterjee & Randhawa, 1952; Joshi, 1956). It is a small tree, measuring less than 4 m when cultivated, although it can reach 7 m in the wild. Recent research findings corroborate traditional use of pomegranate as a medical remedy as all parts of this plant have several bioactive metabolites (Holland et al. 2009). Consequently, its demand has increased tremendously not only in the western world but also in other parts of the globe.

Pomegranate commonly known as ‘anar’ is an ancient favourite table fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.  The pomegranate tree is native from Iran to the Himalayas in northern India and has been cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region of Asia, Africa and Europe. The word pomegranate comes from the Latin “Pomum granatum” which means “apple of many seeds.” The Romans called it the Punic apple. Ancient Romans not only enjoyed the succulent flesh of this fruit but due to the high amount of tannic acid in the skins, they also used the skins in the process of tanning leather. Perhaps due to the fruit’s princely blossom crown, it has gained distinction as a royal fruit. “Pomum granatum” or seeded apple was the name which was known in the middle ages. The French named their hand-tossed explosive a grenade after the seed-scattering properties of the pomegranate fruit.

Fruit borer (Anar butterfly): Deudorix(Virachola) isocrates; D. epijarbas: :Lycaenidae

This is a pest distributed all over India and adjoining countries .It has a host range covering apple, gooseberry ber, citrus, guava, litchi, loquat, peach, mulberry, pear, sapota and  tamarind. Adult is a beautiful glossy bluish to brownish violet butterfly with an orange patch on forewings and a tail in the hind wing.

Genus : Punica 
Species : granatum L.
Family : Punicaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16,18

Pomegranate has originated in Afghanistan and Iran the abode of prophet Mohammad and for very long has been associated with grape and fig and is still held in higher esteem. Acknowledging the multi usefulness of pomegranate Prophet Mohammad said ‘Eat the pomegranate sententiously for it progress the system of envy and hatred’. The crop was very much in demand and liked by the inhabitants prior to the days of Mohammad in the Orient, as pomegranate has something special in the form of refreshing which the people of hot arid region like and adore enormously. The ancient Semitic name rimmon was adopted by Arabs as rumman. The Potruguese roma or roman was formed from rumman. The present botanical name Punica granatum has been derived from Roman name malum punicum (apple of Carthage) and granatum.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) commonly known as ‘Anar’, is an ancient favourite table fruit of tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It belongs to family, Punicaceae. There is a great diversity in pomegranate. Originated in southern Asia and said to be native from Iran to the Himalayas in the northern India (Sandhu and Gill, 2013). The orcharding of pomegranate is somewhat expansive and skilful job. The perennial nature of fruit take longer period to come to bearing stage (3-4 years). Thereafter due to neglect in management practices the annual production, many a times compels the orchardist have to go for distress sale of entire poor quality produce. But, the successful commercial fruit production with increased quality production has made significant contribution to economic development of the grower and ultimately those in the growing region in sustainable manner.

Pomegranate is one of the important fruits of tropical and sub tropical regions. It is also cultivated in semi arid and arid tracts of the country but requires irrigation facilities for better quality of fruits production. Pomegranate is used as fresh and making delicious juice. In India, it is cultivated for domestic consumption and export. Versatile adaptability, hardy nature, less cost in orchard management, low irrigation water requirement as compared to other commercial fruit crops, high yield potential, fine table and therapeutical values and excellent keeping quality has made this fruit more lucrative and remunerative (Sharma et al., 2014).

In global market, India plays a significant role of export of fruits. Recently exports of pomegranate from India have increased and extended to several countries. India stands firmly at third position with 14% market share in pomegranate export after China and Iran.

The annual export of pomegranate fruits from India is about 67, 892 metric tonnes (MT) amounting to revenue of ‘688 crore (Annon, 2019). For export purpose, Phule Arakta, Bhagawa, Super Bhagawa and Mridula varieties are suitable (Anon, 2003).

The highest importer of Indian pomegranate is Gulf countries led by United Arab Emirates (19,000 MT) followed by South East Asian Countries prominently, Bangladesh (10,500 MT) and Nepal (10,000 MT). Among European countries the biggest exporter is Netherlands (4,449 MT) followed by UK (576 MT). Recently, India has also started exporting fresh pomegranate to USA to the tune of 209 MT generating a revenue of 11 crore ((Annon, 2019).

• 52% use of the fruit of total weight.
• Comprising 78% juice and 22% seeds
• CIAH – Central Institutes for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner.
• Cultivars – Alandi or Vadki, Bassein Seedless, Dholka Ganesh, Jalore Seedless, Jyothi, Kabul, Kandhari, Paper Shell, Muskat Red, G-132, G-107, G-137, P-13, P-16, P-23, P-26.
• Hybrid – Mridul – Ganesh × Gul-E-Shah Red (fruit spot infection)
• Ruby – M
• Type of inflorescence is Hypanthodium.
• Pomegranate is a subtropical fruit crop.
• It is commercially propagated by hardwood cutting.
• Fruit cracking happens due to baron deficiency and water imbalance.
• HDP - (5 m × 2 m)- 1000/ha

  (5 m × 5 m)- 400/ha

Pomegranate, Punica granatum is a non-climacteric fruit belonging to smallest Botanical family Punicaceae. In India, Maharashtra is a leading producer of pomegranate followed by Gujarat. Around 90 pests are reported to feed on pomegranate plant out of which only few are of economic concern. The major insect pests and mites are discussed herewith:

Anar butterfly, Deudorix epijarbas (Moore); D. isocrates (Fabricius); (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)

Pomegranate fruit borer, commonly known as anar butterfly is a polyphagous direct pest found throughout the country. In addition to pomegranate, it also feeds on number of crops viz. litchi, citrus, loquat, guava, sapota, aonla etc. Even the wild pomegranate is heavily infested by the fruit borer. Two species namely Deudorix epijarbas and D. isocrates are reported feeding on pomegranate out of which the former is found in hilly terrain of Northern India whereas, the latter exists in the plains of the country. The eggs are glossy, light green and shiny. The larva is dark brown with short hairs and bears whitish patches all over the body (Plate 9d). The full fed larva measures 17-20mm. The adult of D. epijarbas is a brownish butterfly with an orange patch in the

7.1. Introduction

The integrated farming system (IFS) is becoming increasingly important for effective farm resource management in order to increase farm productivity, reduce environmental degradation, improve the quality of life for resource-poor farmers, and ensure sustainability. Integration happens when one production sub-system's outputs (typically by-products) are used as inputs in another within the farm unit (Radhammani et al., 2003; Lightfoot and Minnick, 1991). IFS are a mixed farming system made up of at least two distinct but logically linked components of crop and animal enterprises. The integrated farming system is effective in reducing risk, increasing productivity and revenues, and improving the use of organic waste and agricultural leftovers.

Pongamia pinnata or Mellettia pinnata or Pongamia glabra or Derris indica (2n=2x=22) is a tropical ever green fast growing leguminous tree, with glabrous, glossy and deciduous leaves. The tree is native to India and South Asia and also found in Oceania.

Indication -To know the method of POP bandaging technique.

Method of preparation of POP bandage rolls-

A gauze bandage of 6" or 4" width is spread on a clean floor. Plaster of paris powder is spread uniformly over the entire length of bandage & is folded into roll bandage. In this way 4-6 bandage rolls are prepared.fig-1(a)&(b)

Method of preparation of pop bandage splints

The length of the prepared pop splint is determined by measuring the entire length of fractured bone along with the joint below and above the fractured site) are measured. This much of length of gauze is spread for splint preparation.

POP powder is impregnated upon gauze. The gauze is again spread over this much of length in this manner sprinkling of POP powder & overlapping gauze bandage upto 4-6 layer are continued [fig-1 (b)]

Definition

Compound fracture is a type of fracture in which a broken piece of bone protrudes to outside rupturing the skin with a risk of further infection.

Procedure of management

Clean and flush thoroughly the exposed bone using sterile NS followed by sterile medicated NS (NS with antibiotic or antiseptic). Figure (1)

Mop dry the wound thoroughly.

Apply topical antiseptic or antibiotic.

Put the bone inside the part.

With a sterile artery forcep fix a flushing catheter within the wound at its higher level. Figure (2)

Cover the wound over fracture site with sterile soft padded absorbent cotton padding. Figure (2)

The joint below and above of the fracture site covered with thick layered padded cloth before application of POP cast. Figure (3)

POP cast is wrapped as per the conventional procedure over the fracture site covering the joint below and above. Figure (4)

INTRODUCTION

Total forest cover in India is 70.17 million ha or 21.34% of the total geographical area according to the State of Forest Report 2015. Of this, 8.59 million ha (2.61%) is very dense forest, 31.54 million ha (9.59%) is moderately dense and rest of 30.04 million ha (9.14%) is open. The trees outside forest (TOF) are estimated to cover 9.26 million ha area which constitutes about 2.82% of the total geographical area of the country.  Thus the total forest and tree cover of the country is 24.16% of the total geographical area. The estimates of total growing stock of forest and TOF are 4.195 billion m3 and 1.573 billion m3, respectively. The total growing stock of wood in the county is estimated to be at 5.678 billion m3 which implies an average growing stock of 72.63 m3 ha-1 in 79.42 million ha of forest and tree cover (FSI 2016).

Poppy seed (Papaver somniferum Linn.) is just what one might think – the mature seed of a beautiful flower, known and used for at least 5000 years. Native of the Mediterranean region, as are so many of spice seeds and herbs, Poppies were taken to India and the East by Islamic missionaries, more than a thousand years ago. Poppy seed is so tiny that one pod may contain up to 30000 seeds and it takes some 9,000,000 seeds to weigh one pound! Each seed has a tiny droplet of nut-sweet oil which explains its flavor appeal. Although poppy seed comes from the same plant which produces opium, the seed cannot form until after the plant has matured to the point where it has lost all of its opium potential. Therefore, there is absolutely no narcotic content in poppy seed. Poppy seed is grown in the Netherlands, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, the Balkan countries, Turkey, Argentina, and, to some extent, India. Poppy is cultivated either for the manufacture of opium or for its seeds. In India,variety album (Papaver somniferum Linn. var. album) of Poppy with white seeds has been cultivated for many years for the production of seeds under license in Dehra Doon and Tehri Garhwal districts of former Uttar Prdesh (now Uttarakhand), in India. It is also grown in Jalandhar, Patiala, Kapurthala, and, Hoshiarpur of Punjab State, in India, and, also in some districts of Madhya Pradesh, in India. The continuation of cultivation of Poppy for Poppy heads and Poppy seeds was reviewed by the All India Narcotics Conference in 1956, and, on its recommendation, the State Government of Punjab banned the cultivation of Poppy for Poppy heads for the manufacture of opium for a maximum period of 4 years, by which time, it was expected that necessary developmental measures would be taken to enable the cultivation of alternative crops in lieu of opium Poppy. In India, best seeds are obtained when the capsules have not been incised for extraction of opium. The crop is

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

The evolution of man took place about one million years ago in response to changes in the physical environment. We learnt gradually to adapt different modes of life to varying environments and migrated different parts of the world. Human activities have had their impact on the environment, which was depending on the number of people living in  the area and  their level  of economic development. Per capita consumption of food, energy and other resources in developed countries is larger and its impact on the environment is much greater than equal number of persons living in developing countries in Africa or Asia. Therefore, the distribution of population needs to be examined in detail.

Abstract

Population dynamics studies of phytoparasitic nematodes (mainly 2nd stage juveniles of root-knot nematode; Meloidogyne incognita) in the rhizosphere of persimmon (Diospyros kaki ) orchard, were carried out, in relation to seasonal fluctuations. There was recorded remarkable impact of temperature on the nematode population.  Highest nematode populations (7148/ 200 cc soil) were recorded during May, when temperature was maximum; 22.9^ºC (15.7- 30.0^ºC). Least population density of the nematode were extracted during January when temperature remained minimum; 7.9^ºC (2.4-13.3^ºC). However, relative humidity during entire course of investigation did not show any considerable impact on the population fluctuation of the nematode. With the fall in temperature from July onwards up to January (22.6- 7.9 ^ºC) there was gradual decline in the nematode population (3813- 468/ 200 cc soil), showing thereby that nematode populations in the rhizosphere is directly affected by the prevailing temperature and thereby soil temperature.

India produced 121.8 MT milk during the year 2011-12 and continued to rank first in world milk production. India contributed 16 % of world milk production. As per 2010 statistic, India with 12.5 % of world cattle population contributed 8.4 % in world cow milk and  with 56.7 % of world buffalo population contributed  67.45 % in world buffalo milk. In total milk production of India, contribution of crossbreds, indigenous cattle and buffalo were 23 %, 20% and 53%, respectively.

Abstract

Amongst various soil-borne diseases of apple, white root rot (Dematophora necatrix) causes severe losses both in nursery as well as in grown up orchards and is a limiting factor in raising healthy nursery of apple. Seedlings are killed within a short period depending upon the age of the host and environmental factors. The present investigations were, therefore, undertaken to study the population dynamics of VAM fungi in rhizosphere soil  of apple plant alone and in combination with green amendments and its role in disease suppression. The study revealed that there was variation in population dynamics of VAM fungi alone and in combination with green amendments. It was observed that apple seedlings grown in VAM inoculated fungi (Glomus sp. and Glomus heterosporum) and green amended   soils had more VAM population and colonization in roots than non-amended (minus crop residue) soils after pathogen inoculation. The population of Glomus sp.(350/100gm soil) was maximum in soybean+ Glomus sp. inoculated soil and it was observed that VAM fungi and crop residues in combination suppresses the disease to maximum extent as compared to their alone effect and only 8.7 per cent disease index was recorded in apple seedlings inoculated with mungbean+ Glomus sp. followed by 16.03% in soybean+ Glomus sp. inoculated seedlings.

38.1 Introduction

To fishery management, understanding the abundance of a given species population is critical to the success of that species’ fishery. In this context, a fish population is a naturally occurring stock of a race of fish that occupy a specific area of space and act as a biological unit. The density of the fish population, on the other hand, is the population size per unit of space.

Genes in Populations

• A population is a group of interbreeding individuals who share a gene pool
• Some genes are monomorphic, and others are polymorphic
• Population genetics is concerned with allele and genotype frequencies

The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to calculate genotype frequencies based on allele frequencies

Nonrandom mating may occur in natural and human populations

Concept

Basic concept of this type of improvement is to accumulate, infuse and improve the frequency of favourable genes in established population. This includes the removal or substitution of an undesirable gene with a counterpart favourable one with the superior performance in a given environment, incorporation of a balanced gene combination for better performance - per se or may be even bringing in a better plant type congenial for better physiological activity and biochemical versatility, resulting in better performance of a population. As per theory of Hayes (1963), most of the commercial varieties/hybrids can be improved in one way or the other for one or more of the agronomic attributes. This is primarily because some of the lines in each hybrid generally excel in comparison with other in their ability to transmit desirable characters to their hybrid progeny and thus provide scope for the improvement of the weak inbred lines of the hybrid to further better its performance. The choice of the particular population improvement technique mainly depends upon the genetic information. Since by and large, population improvement techniques envisage controlled crossing followed by selection and recrossing by further selection. This information is vital. Therefore, before deciding upon the choice of a particular methodology, such information as the type of gene action involved in the expression of attribute under improvement, nature of genetic associations, extent of heritability, various possibilities of genetic manipulations should be available. Some of the procedures, which could be successfully utilized in population improvement of parents used in released hybrid populations, are backcross method of breeding, convergent improvement, gamete selection, technique for the removal of complementary genes and step ladder method of breeding.

Theories of Population

The theory of population is studied because the supply of labour depends upon population and its growth. Observing the abnormal growth of population and consequent fall in the standard of living, Thomas Malthus (1760-1834) an English Clergyman frst studied population growth in various countries of Europe. Later he wrote a book entitled “An Essay on the Principles of Population” in 1798. His his theory is popularly known as Malthusian theory of population. To quote the theory in his own words “By nature human food increases in a slow arithmetic ratio, man himself increases in a quick geometric ratio unless want and vice stop him”

17.1. Theories of Population
The theory of population is studied because the supply of labour depends upon population and its growth. Observing the abnormal growth of population and consequent fall in the standard of living, Thomas Malthus (1760 – 1834) an English Clergyman first studied population growth in various countries of Europe. Later he wrote a book entitled “An Essay on the Principles of Population” in 1798. His observations compelled him to foresee a gloomy future for the human race and hence emphasized the immediate need to keep the population growth under check. Now his theory is popularly known as Malthusian theory of population. To quote the theory in his own words “By nature human food increases in a slow arithmetic ratio, man himself increases in a quick geometric ratio unless want and vice stop him.”
17.1.2. Propositions of Malthusian Theory
These are briefly presented below:
1. Population is necessarily limited by means of subsistence (food supply). According to Malthus in a country the size of population depends on its food production. Greater the food production, larger would be the size of population, which a country can support and smaller the food production then the country would be in a position to support smaller population only.
2. The power of population is infinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for men. He further adds that population growth always overtakes food production, since agricultural production is constrained by the law of diminishing returns. This prevents the food production to grow as faster as that of population. As such, there is no limit to the growth of population.
3. Population increases in geometric progression, whereas food production increases in arithmetic progression. This means that population tends to grow in quick geometric progression i.e., 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., while,

Introduction

Women in India had a high and glorious tradition. All nations have attained their pinnacle of glory only when women have been free, cultured and pure. Women have been the transmitter of culture in all societies. Modern living has brought with it not only innumerable means of comfort but also a plethora of demands that tax human body and mind. Stress is an inescapable part of human life is manageable to a large extent. With proper understanding of the processes that cause stress, the situation can be well managed. The stress management is very easy if we sincerely analyze the reasons of stress. Physical stress management techniques have been used since a long time.

The investigator had undertaken the study entitled “Positive Therapy for enhancement of Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy and Management of Stress among Women in Local Governance in Coimbatore District”.

1. INTRODUCTION

Vegetables play a significant role in human nutrition, especially as sources of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and antioxidants. Consumption of vegetables on a daily basis is highly recommended because of its associated health benefits, which include reduced risk of chronic diseases.

Due to perishable nature of vegetables, the post harvest losses of these commodities are four to five times higher than those of food grains. The post harvest losses from vegetables accounts to a tune of Rs. 23,000 crores per year. Both quantitative and qualitative losses occur in horticultural commodities between harvest and consumption. Qualitative losses, such as palatability, nutritional quality, caloric value and consumer acceptability of fresh produce, are much more difficult to assess than the quantitative losses.

Postharvest losses vary greatly across commodity types, with area and the season of production. In contrast, the range of produce losses in developing countries varies widely. Losses at the retail, food service and consumer levels are estimated at approximately 20 per cent in developed countries and about 10 per cent in developing countries. Overall, about one third of horticultural crops produced are never consumed by humans. Reduction of post-harvest losses can increase food availability to the growing world population, decrease the area needed for production and conserve the natural resources.

1. Introduction

Post harvest storage is a powerful challenge in agriculture, about one third of the fresh fruits and vegetables are discarded because of the deterioration of quality of produce beyond a reasonable standard. (FAO, 2011; OCD, 2014) Any change or damage in the quality of product from harvest till consumption is considered as loss. Post harvest handling practices do not increase the quality of product, rather just slows down the process of deterioration. The quality and shelf life of produce is determined prior to the time of harvest. Various factors such as climate, soil preparation and cultivation, fertigation, pest and disease incidence, crop loads etc influence the quality and flavour aspects of fresh food.

23.1 INTRODUCTION

Mandarin oranges are the most popular among the citrus fruits and alone occupy more than 50% share under widely divergent citrus crops grown across the globe. In India, oranges have a place of prominence among fruit kind after mango and banana. It’s delicious, relishing, nutritious and handy fruits offer best mouth feel especially during summer when other fruits fail to quench thirst of throat. There is a need of scientific handling so as to accentuate trade and to exploit market potential of mandarin fruit.

Country wide, orange covers an area of 5.02 lakh hectares and the production is of the order of 43.96 lakh tonnes accounting for 12.03% and 6.40 % share under total acreage and production respectively in the fruits (Anon., 2010). Orange’s production in developed countries is projected to grow at an annualized rate of 0.6 per cent and that in developing country at 0.8 per cent.

In Rajasthan, ‘Nagpur’ mandarin and ‘Kinnow’ fruits occupy a place of prominence among various citrus crops grown. Cultivation of ‘Nagpur’ mandarin is mainly concentrated to Jhalawar district where it covers about 6040 ha area producing 87586 tons fruits, annually. After the implementation of National Horticulture Mission the area is further increasing steadily in the district.

Introduction

Ever since the civilization of mankind, efforts have been directed towards accumulating and storing foods when they are in plenty in order to meet needs during the days of scarcity. In case of food grains not much problem was faced due to nature’s noble way of reducing the moisture level as the grains mature. However, in case of fruits and vegetables, long-term storage in their fresh form was not possible (until development of modern methods) primarily due to their high degree of perishability owing to high moisture content of these commodities at the time of harvest.

Appropriate Post Harvest Management (PHM) of horticultural crops fruits and vegetables in their fresh form prolongs their usefulness and in some cases improves their quality. It also checks market glut, helps in orderly marketing, increases financial gain to the producers and preserves quality of produce for much longer time. Horticultural produce like fruits, vegetables and cut flowers are living, respiring tissues separated from the parent plant. Therefore, the aim of PHM is to control various physiological processes viz. respiration, transpiration and other metabolic activities to keep produce in maximum usable form.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is a vast country having a geographical area of 328 million hectares with 15 distinct agro-climatic zones. Fruits and vegetables are one of the most important and fast growing sub-sectors as they form an indispensable part of healthy diet. It holds a unique position for growing a wide range of vegetables in its diverse agro-climatic conditions. World production of vegetables amounts to 486 million tons, while that of fruits is 392 million tons. India produces 159.5m MT tons of vegetables from an area of 9.07 million hectare annually (NHB, 2013). Productivity of vegetables in India presently is 16.7 tons per hectare. India produces 36 % green peas and 10% onion of world’s production. Onion, potatoes and green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies also have good export potential. Being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and natural antioxidants most vegetables are classified as the protective foods. However, owing to the presence of high moisture content and mostly being non acidic, the vegetables are highly perishable and needs to be handled properly and immediately after harvest. Processing of vegetables into different value added products is one of the most effective alternatives to reduce post harvest losses.

Vegetables are highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and disease prevention. An intake of about 280 grams of vegetables per day per person has been considered essential. Vegetable unlike cereals deteriorated quickly when stored for long periods because of the relatively high moisture contents. Huge amounts of losses take place between harvesting and consumption. Various causes are attributed to the deterioration process and it becomes essential to adopt integrated, low cost system of post harvest technology right from the pre-harvest stage.