eChapters

For any statistical analysis, the required primary data are usually collected by the census or sampling methods. In the census method, the data are collected from all the individuals. E.g., If we want to study the weight of 100 cows, we have to make use of all 100 cows for data collection. That is, we collect data from the entire population or universe. However, in the sampling method, the data are collected from a small group of the population which is termed as the sample. A sample is a portion of the population selected to represent the population. E.g., we collect data only from a sample of cows, say 20 cows drawn from the population.

8.1 NEED FOR ANIMAL DISEASE FREQUENCY MEASURES

The very essence of veterinary epidemiology is to measure animal disease occurrence and to make comparisons between the animal population groups. The animal disease frequency measures help us to understand the distribution of diseases in animal populations. Hence, the principal role of veterinary epidemiology is to describe and explain differences in the distribution of animal diseases between the populations.

Measures of the disease frequencies are used to describe how common an illness is concerning the size of the population (the population at risk) at a particular point in time. The major reason for determining the morbidity is to assess the extent of a disease problem in a population. This assessment is possible only when the number of diseased animals is calculated and compared with the total number of animals in the population. A report of 10 cases of mastitis in a dairy herd does not indicate the true extent of the disease problem, unless the report also indicates the total number of dairy animals in the herd or population. Thus, it is important to relate the number of cases of a disease to the population at risk of developing that disease.

The production of fruit crops is largely dependent on the environmental conditions and nutritional status of the plants. Any alteration in the environmental conditions and nutritional status may results in different physiological disorders which affect the growth of the plants and also the quantity as well as quality of the fruits. The precise and early recognition of physiological disorders is important for the timely adaptation of remedial strategies to reduce the crop loss. Physiological disorders in fruits crops may be due to single factors or multiple factors may be involved in the appearance of physiological disorders. A sound knowledge about the cause of physiological disorder is useful to adopt suitable remedy for the disorder.

Introduction

The abnormal growth behavior or unusual external and/or internal conditions of fruits which results due to adverse environmental conditions and nutritional imbalances are considered as physiological disorders. Physiological disorder is best defined as external or internal malfunctioning resulting from improper environmental or cultural conditions before and/or after harvest. Variation from normal temperature, light, moisture, nutrient, harmful gases, insufficient supply of growth regulators, deficiencies or excesses of nutrient etc. are some of the important environmental and cultural factors of physiological disorders (Fig. 1). Physiological disorders affect the quality as well as quantity of the fruit crops. Detection of precise physiological disorders is not easy and requires a strong knowledge regarding them.

1. Introduction

India is a land of great diversities in terms of people, culture, languages and the style of living, among many other varied characteristics in the country. Based on the climatic, geographical, and cultural features, the country is broadly divided into six zones - the Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western zone, Central and the North-Eastern zone. Eastern zone comprises Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam and eastern UP (27districts of UP). This document exclusively focuses on the four states namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal in the Eastern Zone with an attempt to look into the bottlenecks inhibiting the rural development of the zone.The f inancial institutions for agriculture in India was developed with the purpose of financing the needy farmers and providing them the facilities to increase the efficiency of agriculture. As a result, NABARD was formed in 1982. Thus, it was developed as an apex bank to help and support the agriculture section in India.This chapter seeks to evaluate the role of various financial institutions which play a major role in raising the standard of living of nearly one-fourth of India’s population in the eastern region of our vast country.

Introduction

Embarking on the journey of legume cultivation in India reveals a nuanced landscape marked by both challenges and promising horizons. The agricultural scenario is akin to orchestrating a symphony, where legumes play a vital role, contributing melodies of resilience and significance. Unveiling this leguminous symphony in India is an exploration into the intricate interplay of obstacles and potential triumphs within the agricultural sector. As we delve into an overview of legumes, commonly known as pulse crops, their significance in Indian agriculture becomes apparent. Belonging to the Fabaceae family, these plants possess a distinctive feature - the ability to harness nitrogen from the atmosphere. This unique characteristic renders them pivotal components in sustainable agricultural systems, impacting not only food and nutritional security but also influencing the broader scope of soil fertility enhancement and economic prosperity. The journey through legume cultivation in India unfolds as a harmonious narrative, weaving together the challenges faced and the promising prospects that lie ahead in this agricultural symphony (Sow and Ranjan, 2021).

Introduction

According to the United Nations (UN, DESA 2019) the world population will reach around 9.7 billion by 2050. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has predicted that the world food grain production must increase by 70% by the year 2050 to feed this ever-growing population (Bernard et al., 2017). United Nations World Population Prospects (2022) also predicted the same (Fig 1). However, it is a matter of great concern that the global food grain production has not increased to any significant level (Fig 2) in the past 15 years. As seen in Fig 2, the global food grain production trend has reached a plateau. The main reason behind this fact is the degradation of this valuable natural resource (soil) beyond the tolerance limit due to anthropogenic activities such as imbalanced fertiliser use with the application being largely skewed in favour of nitrogen (N) fertilisers. As per the available data from 2020-21, in nutrient terms, India consumes a total of 32.5 million tonnes (Mt) of fertilisers swhich are distributed over a stable net cultivated area of 141 million hectares (Mha) (Singh et al., 2022). Associated with this is the expenditure of a huge amount of energy for producing these fertilisers, which principally comes from fossil fuel burning, pumping a gigantic quantity of groundwater to solubilise these fertilisers and so on. Not only nitrogen, but the usage of phosphatic and potassic fertilisers has also witnessed an upsurge in the last 50 years (Fig 3).

Introduction

Soil fertility is a key factor in successful crop production measures the ability of the soil to supply nutrients to plants. Soil fertility and fertilisers are closely related concepts. Soil fertility acts as a "SOURCE" from which plants can absorb nutrients for maximum yield, while manure acts as a "SOURCE" from which we can continuously absorb various nutrients and also add to the soil. The importance of soil fertility and fertiliser management has been increasingly recognised in all countries to meet the demand for food and other agricultural commodities. Intensive use of fertilisers and cultivation of high yielding varieties has undoubtedly increased food production and reduced food scarcity, but it has also brought with it a host of problems related to soil fertility, soil and water pollution (Sow et al., 2023a). On the other hand, rapid depletion of nutrients due to overuse, widespread N, P, K, and S deficiency, along with micronutrient deficiencies, especially Zn and Boron, have been observed in many soils.

7.1. People’s Participation in Observation, Analysis and Planning for Rural Development

Why should people participate?

There is no controversy as to whether there should be people’s participation in the development programmes in the development programmes designed to meet the basic needs of the people. The post-mortem of any unsuccessful programmes has shown that they have invariably failed when they failed to provide an adequate place and importance to people’s participation in the planning and analysis.

There is a body of philosophy and a set of assumptions behind people’s participation in rural development. These are;

i) It should be people’s programme with government’s participation;

ii) Community needs to build up their own capacity, agents have got a catalytic role;

iii) Self- imposed changes have got permanence as compared to those imposed from outsides

iv) Holistic approaches are far better than the fragmented approaches;

v) People need certain help to solve unique problems;

Camels could be exploited for augmenting the country’s milk production capacity as a supplementary milk resource in India for the benefit of increasing human population. Since milk production potential of camels in India have remained unexploited and considering its therapeutic utility it can fetch good prices. Camels are raised for milk, meat, fibre (wool and hair), transport and other work; their dung is used as fuel. Milk is often the most important camel product and is the staple food of nomads.

The camel is an important species of the Indian fragile desert ecosystem, a proven icon of adaptation with its unique bio-physiological characteristics and has formidable ways of living in harsh situations of arid and semi-arid regions. The proverbial Ship of Desert earned its epithet on account of its indispensability as a mode of transportation and draught ability in desert. However, its utilities are subject to continuous social and economic changes. The camel has also played a significant role in civil law and order, defence and battles from the ancient times till date. Camels formed an important component of the Mauryan Army (C.322-232 BC) and continued through the Mughal period (1200-1700 AD) to the present times.

Azolla, a fresh water fem is a rich source of nitrogen especially for low land rice farming. It is found in rice paddies in many tropical countries like China, India, Korea, Philippines and Vietnam. The agronomic importance of Azolla lies in its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through the symbiotic association with a blue-green alga, Anabaena azolae. The symbiotic association can fix nitrogen proportional to its biomass produced. When Azolla is grown in paddy f ields and subsequently incorporated as green manure, the nitrogen contained within Azolla biomass is mineralized during the process of decomposition.

Azolla is a genus of small aquatic fern comprising 7 living and 25 fossil species, which is globally distributed. It occurs on still water ponds, lakes, swamps, lagoons and paddy fields in both tropical and temperate regions. Because of its rapid growth, high nitrogen percent and its ability to grow in stagnated waters, it has been used as organic manure in Vietnam and China for centuries. Its use in India and other countries is relatively recent. Azollla pinnata is native to India and widely distributed.

There are several bacteria which fix atmospheric nitrogen and do not have a symbiotic partner such as a plant. There are conclusive evidences regarding nitrogen gains due to free living bacteria (Dart and Day, 1975) The diazotrophic bacteria have been classified based on the mode of nutrition and oxygen requirement (Alexander, 1977, Knowles, 1977). Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria fix nitrogen in soil and their population in rhizosphere of plants are significantly higher than in non-rhizosphere soils

Although the economic and ecological significance of many of these bacteria have yet to be established, the most promising diazotrophs are Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Beijerinckia and Clostridium. Azotobacter and Beijerinckia are some of the most preponderant, non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria. Studies on these organisms in Indian soils have been done earlier by Rangaswamy and Sadasivam (1964) Sen and Barooah (1964) and Jagtap and Bhide (1971). Among the free living bacteria, Azotobacter is the most intensively investigated. Several species viz., A. chroococcum, A. vinelandii, A. macrocytogenes, A. agilis and A. insignis were reported but A. chroococcum is the most common specie encountered in arable soils.

Introduction

Financial inclusion has become a global agenda because it is now well recoganised that a nation can prosper only if it ensures inclusive growth. Financial access and use of formal financial system, the means of financial inclusion, have positive association with inclusive growth (Levine and Demirguc-Kunt, 2008). The financial systems which are more inclusive have provided broader access to appropriate financial services to ensure that the benefit can be availed by poor and disadvantaged sections of the society (Akter, 2016). Since, financial inclusion is the process of ensuring availability of f inancial services and well-timed and sufficient credit as required by vulnerable groups such as low income segment and weaker segment of the society at an affordable cost (Rangarajan Committee on financial inclusion, 2005). Thus, the study of financial inclusion on the basis of socio economic factors is the key to investigate individual characteristics associated with financial inclusion (Allen, Kunt, Klapper, Peria, 2012). Understanding financial usage on the basis of socio economic factors enables framing appropriate financial inclusion strategies to achieve financial inclusion in real sense. Many international agencies like International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, World Bank release data on financial inclusion around the world. Global findex report is published by World Bank after the interval of every three years to present the picture of financial inclusion on various socio economic parameters. Around the world, 74% adults, 72% female, 70% income poorest population, 63% out of labour force population and 66% rural population report to have account at formal financial system (World Bank Global findex report, 2021).

Introduction

Western world started paying attention to climate change after the Industrial Revolution when collateral environmental problems began appearing with the development. But in India, many shastras gave philosophy of sustainable development before the evolution of many civilizations.

It means that “All this is for habitation by the Lord, whatsoever is individual universe of movement in the universal motion. Man should use all resources by renunciation, he should not see them with feeling of lust”. Here, renunciation means controlled use of resources. It is known as Green Application of the resources nowadays.

Whenever the term ‘green’ is used as an adjective with certain phrases, the said phrase is considered to depict a friendly character with the environment. In this sense, the Cambridge Dictionary defines the word ‘green’ as “relating to or believing in the protection of the natural environment.” For instance, Green Technology, one of those concepts towards which this paper is concerned, will refer to those technologies which are environment friendly. But this won’t help us understand what green technology actually means.

Introduction

In today’s world, where environmental issues are prominent and there’s a growing realization of our planet’s limited resources, the concepts of sustainable harvesting and conservation have become extremely important. They act as guiding principles, directing us to use resources responsibly and to protect the diverse life and ecosystems on Earth. The paper is designed to explore the core principles of sustainable harvesting and conservation, emphasizing their critical importance and the pressing need for a careful equilibrium between utilizing resources and safeguarding the environment. The paper analyzes laws, policies, and delving into Sikkim’s sustainable conservation and harvesting methods, and argues that successful implementation of these strategies presents Sikkim as a model that can be replicated worldwide. Sikkim’s proactive initiatives, such as banning plastic and harmful substances, as well as implementing measures to reduce pollution, showcase a forward thinking approach to environmental stewardship(Sikkim, ND),. These actions set an example for other areas to emulate, promoting a more sustainable and responsible relationship with our natural surroundings.

Introduction

As a new decade begins, the effects of climate change are being felt all around the world. Storms, floods, droughts, and wildfires are examples of events that may already be linked to climate change and that are expected to occur more frequently and intensely as well as the destruction they inflict virtually every day. The state of the world’s climate is a serious issue that requires attention. In order to create a future that is more environmentally friendly, addressing this issue is urgently required, and everyone must take this into consideration as their shared goal. Since technology is increasingly being seen as a part of the outcome.

To this end, the strengthening of national innovation systems and ensuring that people have access to effective IPPI management programmes need to be stepped up with a view to improving research and development in technologies, products and services which are needed for transformation into a more environmentally sustainable future. This crisis can’t be solved, unless there is a breakthrough technology that will make the goals achievable. This is why innovation in the field of “green” technologies will be needed and intellectual property rights will play an important role. Intellectual property rights may ensure that technological progress can be sold to allow for the continuation of research and development investment but they could also cause problems and constraints. The impact and opportunities that “Green IP” can have are therefore considerable. Regardless of their distinctions, “Green IP” will have an impact on companies from different industries, sectors, and locations. The consumer goods sector needs to improve how they go about changing the specifications for designing products that can be easily recycled and repaired.

Introduction Large cardamom is an important cash crop cultivated in Sikkim. It is also cultivated in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and some parts of North-eastern state like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur. It is a low volume, high value non-perishable crop grown organicallyat different altitudes under the trees. The State produces about 4,970 tonnes annually from an area of 23,312 hectares (Spice board, 2021). Among the four districts of Sikkim, North and East Sikkim district contributes largest in terms of area and production of large cardamom (GoS, 2016). Off-late, climate change has become a major concern for the large cardamom growers as many researchers reported its contribution to the decline of its production. Sikkim, as Himalayan states, is endowed with varied agro-climate ranging from tropical in the South to alpine in the North. Shrestha et al. (2010) reported that warming in the Himalayas was between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade in the last three decades. Seetharam (2012) revealed that in Gangtok, there is a decreasing trend in maximum temperature while an increasing trend in minimum temperature. The study also depicted the decreasing trend of annual rainfall amount in the study area. In a recent study, Kumar et al. (2020) reported that the warming was more prominent in the last decades in Gangtok and Tadong station, better reflected in the minimum temperature with varied precipitation across the observed period from 1961 2017.

The chapter “Breeding Strategies for Disease Resistance” provides a comprehensive exploration of addressing disease resistance through various breeding strategies. In an era of escalating global challenges and climate change, where crop failures can lead to food shortages and economic instability, the chapter delves into strategies that integrate traditional breeding methods with cutting-edge genetic advancements to strengthen plants against pathogens. Understanding the genetics of plant–pathogen interactions holds profound importance. This knowledge elucidates the mechanisms underpinning disease development and offers insights into developing targeted strategies for disease management. By deciphering the genetic details governing host susceptibility and pathogen virulence, we gain the ability to engineer crops with enhanced resistance, reducing reliance on chemical interventions and promoting sustainable agriculture. The chapter further discusses the mechanism of disease resistance in plants which involves inherent genetic traits that identify pathogen molecules, triggering a rapid defense response called “gene-for-gene” interaction. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), where a local pathogen attack prompts the entire plant to boost its defense preparedness. Signaling molecules like salicylic acid play a pivotal role. Additionally, plants employ chemical defenses via secondary metabolites and leverage beneficial microorganisms to stimulate immune pathways. This coordinated approach empowers plants to effectively counter pathogens and elevate disease resistance. In this chapter, we discuss breeding strategies for disease resistance that encompass a range of vital approaches. Traditional methods involve selecting and breeding plants with inherent resistance traits and incorporating genes from related species to enhance defenses.

Introduction

Intellectual property encompasses the products of human creativity, including inventions, artistic works, and commercial symbols. It can be categorized into two main types: industrial property and copyright. Industrial property covers patents, trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source. Copyright, on the other hand, protects literary and artistic works such as novels, poems, films, music, and visual arts. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) also extend to related areas such as performers’ rights, recording producers’ rights, and broadcasting rights. These rights safeguard the interests of creators by granting them exclusive ownership over their creations. However, unlike tangible property, intellectual property lacks physical characteristics and must be expressed in a discernible manner to be protected.

Traditionally, intellectual property comprised four primary types: patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets. However, the concept has evolved to encompass newer forms, such as geographical indications, plant variety protection, semiconductor and integrated circuit (IC) protection, and undisclosed information. This expansion reflects the changing landscape of innovation driven by rapid technological, scientific, and medical advancements.

The global aquaculture and fisheries industries are essential for maintaining environmental sustainability, economic growth, and food security. With these sectors confronting historically unseen obstacles, such as excessive fishing, habitat destruction, and climate change, government policy will play a bigger role in shaping their futures. A summary of the key concepts and elements influencing how government regulations impact the long-term sustainability of fishing and aquaculture industries. The union administration is committed to providing a favorable climate in collaboration with the States and UTs so that the fishing industry can realize its full potential, achieve excellence, and fulfill its obligations to farmers and customers. To achieve the policy objectives, the government will enlist the support and involvement of all relevant parties. The National Fisheries Policy 2020 provides a planned path ahead for responsible and sustainable development, exploitation, management, and regulation of capture and culture fisheries. In order to achieve the objectives of the "Blue Economy," the Policy will guarantee fruitful integration with other economic sectors, including agriculture, coastal area development, and eco-tourism. Universities are also involved in accessing resources and knowledge.

Introduction

Insects, classified under the Class Insecta within the Phylum Arthropoda, exhibit diverse characteristics. Sometimes, distinguishing between different arthropods is necessary to confirm their classification as insects. Biologists frequently employ dichotomous keys, systematic tools designed to assist in organism identification, to navigate this task.

Instructions

Follow the steps outlined below to identify the insects described. Utilize the provided dichotomous keys and accompanying figures to aid in the identification process.

Introduction

In 1952, the classical theory of survey sampling neared completion. In 1952, Horvitz and Thompson created a general theory with an aim to create objective estimations. As Horvitz and Thompson completed the Classical theory, the random sampling strategy was mostly agreed upon. The majority of the great books on sampling were written by numerous authors. (Yates, 1949; Deming, 1950; Hansen, Hurwitz, and Madow 1953; Cochran et al., 1953).

Why Sample?

• Particularly in fisheries, it is impractical to count every single specimen.

• Sampling gives a depiction of an organism's abundance and dispersion.

• A sufficient number of samples must be used to ensure that the results are accurate representations of the condition. Notwithstanding the fact that the sample is considered to be the credible and representative of the population and that the data shows accuracy, the sample may not accurately reflect the system's real population. As a result, sampling introduces a mistake.

• Sampling error is the statistical error showing the difference between the values derived from the sample of a population and the true values of a population parameter when all the units in the population are counted in the same way that the sample is counted.

Introduction

''Sewage, also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, is produced by communities of people. It is characterized by its volume or flow rate, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and bacteriological status. Sewage primarily consists of greywater (from sinks, tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (water used to flush toilets, combined with human waste)."

The four primary types of wastewater are domestic, industrial, agricultural, and urban. Domestic wastewater comprises black water containing human and animal feces, along with gray water from household tasks such as bathing, washing, cooking, and gardening. Industrial wastewater consists of industrial byproducts like pulp, paper, petrochemical runoff, chemicals, salts, and acids. Agricultural wastewater originates from agricultural practices, contaminated groundwater, and farming methods, particularly those involving fertilizers and pesticides. Urban wastewater is a blend of domestic and industrial wastewaters, compounded by sewage infiltration and rainwater.

5.1 Locale of Research

Based on the All-India assessment report regarding Climate Vulnerability Assessment for Adaptation Planning in India Using a Common Framework which identifies the most vulnerable states and districts in India with respect to current climate risk and the main drivers of vulnerability, the present study has been conducted in two relatively highly vulnerable states of India namely West Bengal (Vulnerability Indices:0.592) and Jharkhand (Vulnerability Indices: 0.674). It specifically comes under Agro-climatic zone III (Lower Gangetic plain region) and Agro-climatic zone VII (Eastern plateau and hilly region) respectively.

On the basis of Vulnerability Indices (Vis) different district of West Bengal classified into three categories i.e. relatively high vulnerability (0.59-0.69), moderate vulnerability (0.49 -0.59), and relatively low vulnerability (0.38- 0.49). Two districts, Malda (VIs:0.690) and Jalpaiguri (VIs:0.627) from highly vulnerable and three district Murshidabad (VIs:0.524), Dakshin Dinajpur (VIs:0.523) and Burdwan (VIs:0.497) from moderate vulnerable category were selected purposively for the present study. For satisfying the purposes three agroclimatic zones of the West Bengal, viz. Terai Zone (Jalpaigudi), Old Alluvial Zone (Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur) and New Alluvial Zone (Burdwan) districts were taken into account for the assessment. Twenty respondents of two Villages from each Block i.e., Alipurduar-I of Jalpaigudi, Hilli and Gangarampur of Dakshin Dinajpur, Old Malda of Murshidabad and Barabani of East Burdwan were purposively picked for the research study.

Introduction

Protein metabolism is a complex and multifaceted process that plays a crucial role in the overall health and function of living organisms. At the most fundamental level, protein metabolism involves the synthesis, breakdown, and utilization of proteins, which are essential macromolecules that serve a wide range of structural, functional, and regulatory roles within the body.

The process of protein synthesis, or translation, begins with the transcription of genetic information stored in DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. These mRNA molecules then serve as templates for the assembly of specific sequences of amino acids into polypeptide chains, which ultimately fold into the three-dimensional structures of functional proteins. This highly regulated process is essential for the production of the diverse array of proteins required for cellular processes, tissue repair, immune function, and numerous other physiological activities. In contrast, protein degradation, or catabolism, refers to the breakdown of proteins into their constituent amino acids. This process is mediated by various proteolytic enzymes, such as endopeptidases, exopeptidases, and dipeptidases, which cleave the peptide bonds that hold the amino acid residues together Protein degradation serves important functions, such as the recycling of amino acids for energy production or the synthesis of new proteins, the removal of damaged or misfolded proteins, and the regulation of cellular signaling pathways.

Introduction

According to the body needs, minerals may be divided into 2 groups like macrominerals and microminerals. Macrominerals are required in amounts greater than 100 mg/day. They include 6 elements like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. Whereas microminerals are also known as trace elements and are required in amounts less than 100 mg/day. They include 10 elements like chromium, cobalt, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc and silicon. Some minerals are always required since small amounts of inorganic salts are always excreted Fruits, vegetables and cereals are the chief sources of the mineral elements in the diet. Milk products supply the majority of the calcium and phosphorus in the diet.

Milk and milk products are the richest source of calcium along with beans, leafy vegetables and egg yolk. It is absorbed from upper small intestine. Absorption of calcium is active process and requires calcium binding protein present in the intestinal mucosal cells. The absorption is regulated by vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, high protein diet, pH, high dietary lactate and citrate are the factors that promotes calcium absorption. Whereas high dietary phosphate, alkalinity and impaired fat absorption are the factors that inhibits calcium absorption. Of the total body calcium, 99 % present in bones and teeth in the form of hydroxyapatite and 1 % is present in body fluids and other tissues. Calcium in bones acts as a reservoir, which helps to stabilize calcium ions in plasma and extracellular f luid Parathyroid hormone and active vitamin D stimulate osteoblasts while estrogen hormone inhibits osteoclasts.

Introduction

Nucleic acids, primarily DNA and RNA, are essential for the storage and expression of genetic information. Under physiological conditions, the amino and oxo tautomers of purines and pyrimidines predominate. Adenine a., guanine (G), cytosine c., thymine (T), and uracil (U) are the main building blocks of nucleic acids. Other building blocks include 5-methylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, pseudouridine, and N-methylated heterocycles. A -glycosidic bond connects D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose to the N-1 of a pyrimidine or the N-9 of a purine, with the syn conformers being the most common.

Nucleotides are the monomeric units of nucleic acids that contain a phosphate group attached to the sugar’s 3’ or 5’ hydroxyl. Extra phosphate groups form nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates. These have high group transfer potential and help make covalent bonds. Cyclic phosphodiesters cAMP and cGMP act as second messengers. 3′ 5′ phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides to form polynucleotides, which have a directional 5′ and 3′ end. Four bases—A, G, C, and T—compose DNA, and hydrogen bonds (A to T, G to C) hold them together to form a double helix. Human DNA consists of approximately 3 billion base pairs organized into 23 chromosomes, encoding around 25,000 protein-coding genes and various non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs).

Introduction

In a historic landmark, Genentech, a young Californian Company pioneering in gene splicing (which includes recDNA technology, genetic engineering, gene transplantation, gene cloning), saw its stock price skyrocket form $35 to a staggering $89 within just 20 minutes of the New York Stock Exchange’s opening bell on October 15, 1980. This was marked as the fastest stock price growth ever witnessed on that exchange. The company’s success was attributed to the ground-breaking work it had been involved in producing human insulin through genetic engineering that offered a revolutionary alternative for diabetics allergic to the then traditional insulin of porcine origin. Genentech’s pioneering work in gene splicing has its roots in the early 1970s. In 1972, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were credited with creating the first recombinant DNA molecule. Their experiments demonstrated the ability to create recombinant DNA molecules that could be introduced into bacteria like E? coli, offering a foundation for future advancements in genetic engineering.

Introduction

Most glands of the body deliver their secretions by means of ducts. These are called exocrine glands. There are few glands that produce chemical substance that they directly secrete into the blood stream for transmission to various target tissues. These are ductless or endocrine glands. The secretions of endocrine glands are called as hormones. Therefore, it is a chemical substance which is produced in one part of the body, enters the circulation and is carried to distant target organs and tissues to modify their structures and functions. Hormones are stimulating substances and act as body catalysts. The hormones catalyze and control diverse metabolic processes. Despite their varying actions and different specificity’s depending on the target organ, the hormones have several characteristics in common with enzymes. They act as body catalysts resembling enzymes in some aspect. They are required only in small quantities. They are not used up during the reaction. They differ from enzymes because they are produced in an organ other than that in which they ultimately perform their action. The major hormone secreting glands are as follows— Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Ovaries and Testes. The hormones are classified into following main classes according to the chemical structures:

Introduction

Immunology deals with the body defence system consisting of various cells and biomolecules that prevents entry of foreign infectious and toxic agents by different mechanisms. The mammalian immune system operates in two ways like innate or non specific immunity and adaptive or acquired or specific immunity. Innate part constitutes the physical (skin, hair, tears and mucous secretions) containing enzymes that prevents primarily entry of pathogen. It is the first line of defence action, very fast but not adequate. Adaptive form constitutes defensive cells and secreted immunoglobulins. It takes time to develop effectively, especially when the body sees the organism for the first time. Immunoglobulins (Ig) or antibodies are a group of proteins produced from B lymphocytes and plasma cells in response to the presence of any foreign substances. They are 5 basic types like M, A, G, E and D each with specific function. The system can produce antibody molecules, directed to about 1 million different kinds of antigens. All immunoglobulins have a similar basic structure.

Introduction

Biochemistry is branch of life science which deals with the study of chemical reactions occurring in the living cells and organisms. The term biochemistry was first introduced by German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. Since biochemistry is associated with the biological reactions and energy changes associated with these reactions or transformations within the living cell, biochemistry may thus be treated as a discipline in which biological phenomenon are analysed in terms of chemistry. The branch of biochemistry for the same reason has been variously named as “Biological Chemistry” or “Chemical Biology”. Modern biochemistry has two branches descriptive and dynamic biochemistry. Descriptive biochemistry deals with qualitative and quantitative characterization of the various chemical components of cell and the dynamic biochemistry deals with the elucidation of the nature and the mechanism of reactions involving these chemical cell components.

Qualitative analysis of biological sample deals with the examination of the organic or inorganic cell associated components in order to determine its composition. It denotes the presence of various biomolecules, elements or groups of elements that are present in the sampling population. It is possible to determine whether a particular component is present or absent in a sample by performing a qualitative analysis of the sample. Qualitative analysis is the identification of elements, species and/or compounds present in a sample.

The term probiotic means “for life” and it is currently used to refer bacteria that are associated with beneficial effects for humans and animals. The credit for first observation made on the positive role of some selected bacteria was attributed to Eli Metchnikoff, the Russian born Nobel Prize recipient, worked at the Pasteur Institute in the beginning of the last century. Metchnikoff suggested that - “the dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food makes it possible to adopt measures to modify the microflora in our bodies and to replace the harmful microbes by useful microbes”. Interim Henry Tissier, a French paediatrician, observed that children with diarrhea in their stools had a low number of bacteria which are characterized by a peculiar Y shaped morphology. On the contrary, these “bifid” bacteria were abundant in healthy children. Based on these observations, Tissier suggested that “bifid” bacteria could be administered to patients with diarrhoea to help restore a healthy gut microflora. These two scientists were the first to give scientific intimation for the use of probiotics when even the term probiotics was not coined. Later in 1965, the term probiotics is coined by Lilly and Stillwell to describe substances produced by one microorganism, that stimulate the growth of another. Subsequently, Parker defined probiotics as organisms and substances that contribute to intestinal balance. Further, Fuller (1989) improved the Parker’s definition of probiotics as “live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance”. Havenaar and Huis in’t Veld (1992) extended the probiotic definition with the description: “A viable mono or mixed culture of microorganisms which, applied to animal or man, beneficially affects the host by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora”. At the end of the millennium, Salminen and his coworkers (1999) proposed the following definition: “probiotics are microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health & well- being of host”. Whereas FAO/WHO (2001) defined probiotics as “living bacteria that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host”. This definition for probiotics is widely accepted.

Introduction

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are characterized as Gram-positive cocci or rods, non-aerobic but aerotolerant, able to ferment carbohydrates for production of energy and lactic acid. Lactic acid bacteria includes different major genera: Lactococcus, Enterococcus, Lactosphaera, euconostoc, Melissococcus, Oenococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Tetragenococcus, Vagococcus and Weissella. Other genera are Aerococcus, Microbacterium, Propionibacterium and Bifidobacterium. Through carbohydrate fermentation along with lactic acid, various organic acids are produced due to which there is a fall in pH level and creates unfavorable environment or inhibits growth of some undesired microorganisms. The low pH makes organic acids lipo -soluble, allowing them to invade into cytoplasm of pathogens by rupturing cell membrane. LAB are generally regarded as safe (GRAS), and have a significant role in the preservation of foods and fermented products. Under controlled conditions they can be used as natural competitive microbiota or as specific starter cultures. Antagonistic substance like bacteriocins are produced from lactic acid bacteria that inhibits the activity and growth of other bacteria and these bacteriocins are active against various pathogens in minimum concentration. These are antimicrobial peptides modified by post -translational mechanisms and exported to the extracellular medium. Till date about 239 bacteriocin producing LAB genome and 789 putative bacteriocin producing genes cluster are stored in the public databases. Many gram positive and gram negative bacteria in the environment produce bacteriocins.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) includes antimicrobial use and abuse in human, animal and environmental sectors. It also covers the spread of resistant bacteria and resistance determinants within and between these sectors and as global phenomenon. Most of the classes of antimicrobials used to treat bacterial infections in humans are also used in animals. Major concerns in the animal health are treatment of animals with antimicrobials that are critically important for humans too, such as third-generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones. Another important issue is the use of medically important antimicrobials in feed for long term, such as colistin, tetracyclines, and macrolides, for growth promotion. Inappropriate use and unprofessional choice of antibiotics without performing antibiotic susceptibility test in animals results into higher occurrence of antimicrobial resistance. Given the important and interdependent human, animal and environmental dimensions of AMR, it is logical to take a One Health approach when addressing this problem. One Health is the multidisciplinary, collaborative, scientific and coordinated approach to address health threat at human, animal and environment interface, the aim of One Health approach is to understanding and designing interventions and policies to combat AMR. WHO recently has launched new guidelines on the use of medically important antimicrobials in food-producing animals, recommending that farmers and the food industry stop using antimicrobials routinely to promote growth and prevent disease in healthy animals. Thus these guidelines will help to preserve the effectiveness of antimicrobials that are important for human medicine by reducing their use in animals.

Salmonellosis

Salmonellosis is caused by G-bacteria Salmonella and characterized by early chick mortality with necrosis and hemorrhage in liver, heart and spleen and enlarged bronze coloured liver with focal or diffuse necrosis, marbled spleen and/or oophoritis and salpingitis in adults (Fig.4.1).

Etiology

• Salmonella enteritidis var. Galinarum (S. Galinarum).

• G-, rod, non lactose fermenter.

• White small colonies on MLA and pink on BGA.

Introduction

A thoroughly performed physical examination in poultry and avian clinical practice is of great importance. Most avian species happen to be prey animals, with the exception of a few raptors that tend to be predatory. This makes them try to appear healthy, in preparation to escape from potential predators, and as such, makes it difficult for their owners, keepers and veterinarians to detect early diseases. Physical examination when carefully performed in detail, increases the chances of obtaining fewer differential diagnosis that are likely to be harboring the confirmatory diagnosis after laboratory works are being performed. In essence, a thorough physical examination brings about cost efficiency in poultry/ avian clinical practice. Take for instance, a farm with over 50,000 layers, having lowered productivity. It will be cumbersome to go ahead and start blood sampling, faecal sampling or oral cavity swabs for laboratory analysis as the starting point. The disadvantages will be high labour demands, high capital demands, more stress on the animals and of course, long time till feasible outcome is to be obtained.

6.1 Hal for Land Preparation: This plough is constructed from Babool, sal, sisham wood, and mild steel. The body and handle are made from one piece, with a separate shoe. It is operated by one pair of bullocks with a yoke, weighs 48 lbs, and can cover 0.8 to 1 acre per day. It works to an average depth and width of 5 and 6 inches in alluvial soils, with a draught requirement of 185 lbs. It is used by 100% of the farming community in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh. (ICAR, 1960)

6.2 Wetland Plough (Dammu Nagali) for Land Preparation: This plough is made from Babool, palmyra, and mild steel, weighing 30-40 kg. Operated by two bullocks and one man, it is attached to the yoke with ropes for puddling rice fields, covering half an acre per day. It has a draught of 200-220 kg and ploughs to a depth of 4-5 inches and width of 5-6 inches in black and red soils. Repairable locally, its annual maintenance costs range from Rs 0.5 to 1.0, with an operational cost of Rs 25 per hectare. It is widely used in the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh (Guntur and West Godavari). (ICAR, 1960).

The GOI is pushing to strengthen infrastructure for the production of quality milk, as well as for procurement, processing, and marketing of milk and milk products through the following Dairy Development Schemes:

6.1. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS)

Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS) was started in September 2010. This scheme is being implemented through NABARD which provides financial assistance to commercially bankable projects with loans from Commercial, Cooperative, Urban and Rural banks.

Objective of the scheme

To generate self-employment and provide infrastructure for the dairy sector, to set up modern dairy farms and infrastructure for the production of clean milk, to encourage heifer calf rearing for conservation and development of good breeding stock, to bring structural changes in the unorganized sector so that initial processing of milk can be taken up at the village level, to upgrade traditional technology to handle milk on a commercial scale, to provide value addition to milk through processing and production of milk products.

Introduction

Organic farming in floriculture represents a transformative shift towards sustainable and environmentally responsible agricultural practices, responding to the increasing demand for eco-friendly products worldwide. As awareness of the detrimental impacts of chemical pesticides, synthetic fertilizers and monoculture farming grows, consumers and producers alike are increasingly embracing organic methods. This transition is not merely a trend but a necessary evolution towards preserving ecological balance, promoting biodiversity and ensuring the long-term health of both human populations and the planet.The organic farming in floriculture is expansive, encompassing a holistic approach that integrates ecological principles into every aspect of f lower cultivation. Organic floriculture avoids synthetic chemicals, opting instead for natural alternatives that foster healthy soil, robust plant growth and resilient ecosystems. Key practices included in organic farming are crop rotation, green manuring, composting and biological pest control, all of which contribute to maintaining soil fertility and preventing pest outbreaks without harming the environment. These practices help create a self-sustaining system where natural processes regulate plant health, reducing the need for external inputs and enhancing the resilience of the agro-ecosystem.

Introduction

Ornamental plants, prized for their aesthetic appeal and vital role in horticulture and landscaping, enhance both private and public spaces with their beauty, contributing significantly to mental well-being and environmental health. These plants, encompassing a diverse array of species and varieties are cultivated not just for their visual splendour but also for their aromatic, structural and ecological benefits. The successful cultivation and maintenance of ornamental plants however require meticulous care and expertise, especially in managing their growth and development. This is where plant growth regulators (PGRs) become indispensable tools in ornamental horticulture Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are a class of naturally occurring and synthetic compounds that play a crucial role in the regulation of plant growth and development. These substances, even when applied in minute concentrations, can have profound effects on various physiological processes within plants, including cell division, elongation, differentiation, flowering, fruiting and senescence. The primary categories of PGRs include auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic acid, each contributing uniquely to plant development and stress responses. Auxins, such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), are pivotal in cell elongation, apical dominance and root initiation, making them indispensable in rooting cuttings and maintaining plant structure. Cytokinins, including kinetin and benzyladenine, promote cell division and shoot formation, thus enhancing branching and delaying leaf senescence.

The influence of lunar and astrological rhythms on agricultural practices has been a subject of interest and practice for centuries. In biodynamic farming, these celestial rhythms play a significant role in guiding planting and cultivation activities. Biodynamic farming, founded by Rudolf Steiner, integrates cosmic rhythms, including lunar phases and astrological cycles, into its agricultural practices to enhance soil fertility, plant growth, and overall farm health. This article explores the principles underlying the influence of lunar and astrological rhythms on planting and cultivation practices, the historical context of these practices, and their application in modern biodynamic farming. It examines how lunar and astrological cycles are believed to affect plant growth, soil health, and pest management, and provides insights into practical applications and benefits. By understanding the interplay between cosmic rhythms and agricultural practices, farmers can optimize their cultivation strategies to align with natural cycles, potentially leading to more sustainable and productive farming systems.

Millets which are also known as “Shree Anna” are a type of grass with small seeds that belongs to the Poaceae family and are widely grown throughout the world. Millets have high levels of proteins, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants that why they are known to be climate-change-resilient crops. Proteins are essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize and are used as a nitrogen source during embryo development following germination. Millets are high in dietary fibre and are important staple crop in many parts of the world. They are versatile grains that can be used to make a variety of food products, including millet flour. Millets are good for cardiac health, weight management, antioxidant activity, and may have anti-cancerous properties. They are nutrient- dense, provide sustained energy, and contain antioxidants such as polyphenols and flavonoids. Millets are considered safe and have a variety of health benefits. Surprisingly, millets perform major non-millet cereals in terms of nutrition. They are particularly high in dietary fibres, minerals, antioxidants, phytochemicals, and polyphenols, all of which have broad-spectrum positive effects on human health.

Agriculture is the support for the sustainable health and economic growth of the country. With the frequent changes in climatic conditions and increase of global population, it is important to come up with new varieties and nutrient rich crops. In this context, underutilized and neglected millets, considered as “nutri-cereals” or “smart foods” due to better adaptation in diverse environmental stresses and tolerance to insect pests and diseases, also a staple crop for hunger-stricken areas. Millet production is limited by the lack of intensive farming and deployment of genetic tools for trait and nutrition improvement. The recent advancement in machine learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies are key to depict plant response to environmental perturbation in huge data sets. Therefore, precision agriculture or smart farming is necessary to explore the genetic makeup of the neglected millets. AI has a substantial potential to handle numerous challenges in the formation of knowledge-based farming systems. The next agricultural revolution would emphasize more on farm machinery using AI integrated with the Internet of Things (IoT). In Smart agriculture, deep learning facilitates fast and interesting data analysis and provides support to researchers and farmers by the outcomes generated from the analysis. Here, we emphasize on the advancement of AI and its application to monitor the underutilized and neglected millets quality, yield and disease assessment. This chapter summarizes how AI can contribute to the improvement of sustainable productivity and quality of underutilized and neglected millet.

Poultry Breeding

Poultry breeding is a scientific practice aimed at enhancing the genetic traits of birds to improve their productivity and quality. Historically, poultry farming began as small-scale backyard operations, but it has now evolved into a major industry. This transformation has been driven by the development of superi or breeds for both egg and meat production through advanced breeding and selection techniques. Modern poultry breeds exhibit significantly improved productive capacities, such as higher egg production and better meat quality, compared to their ancestors. Successful poultry breeding requires a deep un derstanding of the qualities and capabilities of various breeds, allowing breed ers to select and combine desirable traits to achieve specific goals, whether for size, weight, egg production, meat quality, or a combination of these factors.

• Poultry production has transitioned from a small-scale backyard venture to a significant industry.

• This growth has been largely driven by the development of superior breeds for egg and meat production, utilizing modern breeding and selection techniques.

Care and Management of Meat-Type Chickens (Broilers)

Broiler Overview

• Broilers are unisex young chickens raised specifically for meat production. They are typically grown to reach a body weight of 2.0 to 2.5 kg within 5 to 6 weeks, consuming 3.0 to 3.5 kg of feed, resulting in a feed conversion ratio of 1.50 to 1.75.

• Broiler meat is flvored for its tenderness, high-quality protein content, low fat and cholesterol levels, superior flavor, and juiciness.

• The broiler production cycle is divided into three phases based on the birds’ physiological and production needs: broiler starter (0-10 days), broiler grower (11-21 days), and broiler finisher (22 days to marketing).

Various insect and mite pests infest fruit and plantation crops in different stages of crop growth directly or indirectly causing significant losses, hence need their management. The major pests of different fruit and plantation crops, their identification characters, life history, nature of damage and symptoms alongwith its management practices are described crop wise:

Temperate fruits

Pome fruits and stone and nut fruits are mainly cultivated in the temperate regions, which usually requires chilling requirements. Among stone and nut fruits cherry, apricot, peach and plum are the main crops whereas among the nut fruits, walnut, almond are major crops which are a source of handsome income to the orchardists of those areas. The insect and mite pests of pome, stone and nut fruits are described hereunder:

Managing plant diseases is necessary to preserve the quantity and quality of food, feed, and fiber that producers worldwide produce. To avoid, lessen, or manage plant diseases, several strategies may be employed. Aside from using effective horticultural and agronomic techniques, growers frequently largely depend on chemical pesticides and fertilizers. The remarkable increases in crop productivity and quality over the past 100 years have been largely attributed to such agricultural inputs. However, fear-mongering by certain opponents of pesticides and environmental degradation from excessive and improper use of agrochemicals have prompted significant shifts in public perceptions toward pesticide usage in agriculture. Political pressure is present to remove the most dangerous chemicals from the market, and there are stringent limits on the use of chemical pesticides today. Furthermore, because of the potential scale at which such applications could need to be made, the proliferation of plant diseases in natural ecosystems may make the successful application of pesticides impossible. As a result, several researchers studying pest management have concentrated on creating substitutes for artificial chemicals in the management of diseases and pests. Biological controls are one type of alternative among them.

Definition of Host Plant Resistance (HPR)
Those characters that enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.
or
Those heritable characteristics possessed by the plant which influence the ultimate degree of loss done by the disease.
or
The inherent ability of an organism (i.e., the crop plant) to resist or withstand the pathogen is called resistance
Classification of Resistance
Each plant species is affected by hundreds of kinds of pathogen. Frequently a single plant is attacked by hundreds of individuals of a pathogen. Yet, those plants survive which are resistant, adapting a number of mechanisms classified variously.
1. Based on existence
a. Preformed
When the resistance is already present in the plant even I the absence of the pathogen, it is known as preformed, axenic or passive

Loose Smut
Sphacelotheca cruenta
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Affected plants can be detected before the ears come out.
• Shorter than the healthy plants with thinner stalks and marked tillering.
• Ears come out much earlier than the healthy.
• Glumes are hypertrophied and the ear head gives a loose appearance than healthy.
• Sorus is covered by a thin membrane which ruptures very early, exposing the spores even as the head emerges from the sheath(Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota

1. Rhizoctonia aerial blight / Web blight
Symptoms
• The soybean Rhizoctonia aerial blight is a damaging foliar disease that quickly defoliates plants in warm, humid climates.
• Rhizoctonia solani causes soybean aerial blight, which manifests as leaf and pod spots, leaf blight, defoliation, lesions on the stem and petiole, a mycelium that resembles a cobweb, and sclerotia that form on diseased leaves.
• The plant’s lower or central sections are where infection starts, and it progressively spreads upward.
• The leaves first have wet patches that eventually become green to reddish brown in color before turning tan, brown, or black.
• Small spots at first eventually combine to cover a significant portion of the leaf.
• Affected leaves droop and stick to the pods and stem underneath them during the aerial blight phase, infecting the pods and seeds in the process.