eChapters

Percent Solutions

There are three types of percent solutions. All are parts of solute per 100 total parts of solution. Based on the following definitions you may calculate the concentration of a solution or calculate how to make up a specific concentration

    1.    % W/W - Percent of weight of solute in the total weight of the solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 grams of solution. 
        Example: 
        A 100% (W/W) NaCl solution is made by weighing 100 g NaCl and dissolving in 100 g of solution

    2.    % W/V - Percent of weight of solution in the total volume of solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 ml of solution. This is probably the least significant way of naming a solution, but the most common way of doing it. In fact, any percent solution not stipulated as W/W, W/V, or V/V is assumed to be % W/V. 
        Example : A 4% (W/V) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 ml of solution.

    3.    % V/V - Percent of volume of solute in the total volume of solution %V/V. Percent here is the number of milliliters of solute in 100 ml of solution. 
        Example: A 10% (V/V) ethanol solution is 10 ml of ethanol in 100 ml of solution; unless otherwise stated, water is the solvent. 

Land resources units or major land resources units are the suitable segmentations of land, based on available natural resources, their potential use and management. Irrespective of terms used by different organizations or institutes, these units have spatial dimension and represent a composite unit for interstate, regional, and national level planning. A typical meaning of these land units can be related to terms like land system. Christian and Stewart (1953) of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia devised the ‘Land system’ as the composite mapping-unit which has been defined as “an area or group of areas, throughout which there is a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation”. This system is based on the premise that the land system is expressed on aerial photographs by a distinctive pattern and, as such, the land system can be directly mapped from aerial photographs (Christian and Stewart 1953, Mabbutt and McAlpine 1965). It is a fact that during those period, aerial photographs were more frequently used and studies related to land systems used technique of aerial photogrammetry. As per USDA (United States Developmental Agency), the typical segmentations are; (1) Land Resource Region (LRR), which is the highest level in the hierarchy (2) Major Land Resource Area (MLRA), the second highest level and generally representing broad landforms or a geologic region at a small scale and (3) the Land Resource Unit (LRU).

Introduction

It is impossible to overestimate the crucial impact that plant breeding, a fundamental branch of agricultural science, has played in determining the course of societies throughout history. The foundation of agricultural advancement throughout history has been the creation and spread of improved crop varieties, which have a profound effect on farmers’ socioeconomic conditions everywhere. This effort involves strategically enhancing crop types to meet the evolving demands of communities and farmers.

Molecular biology labo-ratories are becoming very common in every University and research institutes and a good laboratory manners is extremely important as many of the equipments are very expensive and sensitive. Hence familiarity with equipments becomes very crucial before starting any experiment.

Animal husbandry is an integral component of Indian agriculture supporting livelihood of more than two-third of the rural population. The livestock sector plays a significant role in supplementing family incomes and generating gainful employment in the rural sector, besides providing cheap nutritional food to millions of people. Livestock provides milk, egg, meat as nutritious food, draught power for agriculture, wool, fibre, manure and domestic fuel, hides & skin. In 2010-11, this sector contributed 121.84 million tonnes of milk, 63.02 billion eggs, 42.99 million kg wool, and 4.83 million tonnes of meat. Milk is the main output of livestock sector accounting around two third (67%) of the total output by livestock sector. Meat and egg share 17.5% and 3.6% of the value of livestock output. Livestock contributed 4% to the total GDP and 26% to the agricultural GDP in 2010-11. Livestock are the best insurance against the vagaries of nature like drought, famine and other natural calamities.

Soil fertility -importance

From edaphological point of view soil is a medium for plant growth. It holds and nourishes the plants. Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to supply plant nutrients. Soil fertility and fertilizers are very much closely related terms; and cannot be neglected one from the other in their function. Soil fertility acts as a ‘SINK’ where in plants can draw nutrients for maximum productivity, where as fertilizer, acts as a ‘SOURCE’ wherein we can apply continuously different nutrients. The importance of soil fertility and nutrient management is being increasingly recognized in all countries recently to meet the demand for food and other agricultural raw materials. Intensive use of fertilizer, intensive cropping and high yielding seeds have no doubt increased the food production and reduced the food shortage but it has also ushered in innumerable problems of soil fertility, soil and water pollution. On the other hand, fast depletion of nutrients due to over exploitation, a wide spread deficiency of N, P, K and S coupled with micronutrients deficiencies specially Zn, B and Mo is taking place. Further deforestation, shifting cultivation, burning of crop residues, trees, bushes, grasses and cow dung, soil erosion, nutrient losses and imbalanced nutrient application, leaching losses etc., have aggravated the depletion of soil fertility status. The productivity of Indian agriculture solely depends on scientific management of soil fertility along with judicious and efficient use of fertilizers integrated with organic sources.

Alkaloids are naturally occurring substances of plant origin that are alkaline in reaction. They are optically active, contain nitrogen as part of a heterocyclic ring and have varying degrees of psychological responses in man and animals. They exhibit significant pharmacological activity. Alkaloids are mostly basic in character but also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Presently more than 2000 alkaloids are known.

Nomenclature of alkaloids
Alkaloids are named by adding the suffix ‘ine’ to various distinguishable features such as sources, physiological action in animals, their properties etc. Thus, 1. The name of the genera of the plants containing them Ex. Atropine (Atropa), nicotine (Nicotiana) etc. 2. The names of the species of the plants producing them Ex. Cocaine (Erythroxolon coca). 3. The common name of the organism producing them Ex. Ergotamine (ergot fungus). 4. The specific physiological activity observed in animals Ex. Emetine (emetic – causing vomiting), narcotine (narcotic-alters mind).

ABSTRACT

Green revolution provided sufficient amount of foods but the way resources were utilized causes the degradation of natural resources in various aspect. The adverse effect on the ecological system can be visualized in the form of various diseases in human and loss of biodiversity. The population burst is the root cause of imbalanced ecological system because agricultural land decreases drastically. Therefore we must aim to develop and improve the agri- economic growth of farmers by introducing elite variety of Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. M. pruriens, a member of Fabaceae family, is an adaptogen and known for its tonifying, strengthening and all around beneficial properties from every part of the plant. M. pruriens has range of medicinal applications, because of unusual amino-acid L-DOPA (L3, 4dihydroxyphenylalanine) a precursor of neurotransmitter dopamine (Anti Parkinson’s) and involved in various secondary metabolite pathways. It acts like aphrodisiac, anti-snake venom, anti-depressant, antidiabetic, anti-microbial. It has a nutritional quality comparable to soyabeans. M. pruriens exhibits a tolerance for various kinds of environmental stresses such as drought, low soil fertility, and high soil acidity. M. pruriens suppresses weeds through indeterminate growth and large leaves reduce the amount of light for weeds. It shows allelopathy and effective in lowering nematodes. M. pruriens is used as forage, fallow, green manure prevents the soil erosion. It has a longer time span to be used in rotations for management of various pathogens.

Leaf Spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Economic Importance

• The disease is common in many parts of South India, and in recent years has become very severe, causing much damage to the crop.
• The yield losses occur due to leaf spot infection is through the loss of photosynthetic green surface.
• During the period of heavy infestation, yield loss could be as much as 50%.

ABSTRACT

The present communication thr ows light on 118 species of flowering plants (Angiosperms) found in Dewghat forest (in Koraon forest range of Uttar Pradesh), which are traditionally used by the “Kol” tribal community and some other forest dwelling people, viz. Belbans, Bahelia, Mushahar etc. An enumeration of these plants materials is prepared with their botanical names, local / vernacular names, family names and using practices provided in this paper. This is the first ever report from the area under study on this aspect. In case of Anogeissus latifolia the leaf juice is used poisonous insect bite, grounded flower used in chronic diseases and its fruit is used asthma. The seeds of Cleome viscosa are given orally in stomach diseases. The leaves of Cassia alata used for ringworms and skin disease. The leaves juice and seed of Euphorbia thymifolia is used as a strong purgative. It leaf juice is also used for the remedy of ringworms and other skin diseases. It is an antidote for snakebite. The present study is aimed at indexing of all medicinal flora occurring in Dewghat forest (U.P.) and their uses for the benefit of the researchers to undertake studies on the prospects and potential of commercial exploitation.

Pulses are widely acknowledged as superfoods, three times the protein in rice and double in wheat. Besides, they are also rich in complex carbohydrates, micronutrients, protein and B-vitamins and minerals like folate, iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc and potassium. High iron content in some pulses also minimizes the risk of anaemia. Long storability without loss of nutritional value, low prices, and broader availability make pulses an affordable source of minerals, and protein, thus contributing to food security at all levels of society in India. Besides human nutrition, pulse crops are also utilized as fodder and fuel for farm households.

The intersection of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) with agriculture has sparked a transformative revolution in the farming landscape. ICT projects in agriculture represent a paradigm shift, leveraging technological advancements to optimize farming practices, enhance productivity and ensure sustainable food production. From precision farming and data-driven decision-making to innovative tools and connectivity solutions, these projects harness the power of digital innovation to address challenges and drive efficiency across the agricultural sector. In this era where technology has become a cornerstone of progress, ICT projects stand as beacons of hope, ushering in a new era of smarter, more resilient and eco-conscious agriculture. The initiatives of ICT projects in agriculture and allied sectors

Introduction

The most important function in the socioeconomic domain of India is played by agriculture, which is the foundation of the nation's economy. India's agriculture industry is vast, varied, and involves a lot of different players. With the use of Green Revolution technologies, it has become one of the most amazing success stories of the post-independence era. The Green Revolution enhanced rural welfare and allowed for food self-sufficiency, both of which boosted the Indian economy. In the framework of the Green Revolution, the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) played a crucial role. India boasts one of the world's biggest and most intricate agricultural research programs in terms of structure. The Imperial (now Indian) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established in 1929 on the advice of a Royal Commission on Agriculture, marking the culmination of a process that began in the 19th century and led to the creation of the current Indian agricultural research system [1].

The functioning of the agricultural sector, market dynamics, and policy consequences are all influenced by a complex web of interrelated components that make up agricultural economics dynamics. These dynamics shape the production, supply, demand, and competitiveness of agricultural products and involve the interactions between farmers, markets, technology, and government regulations [2],[5].

Introduction

Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Traditional Cultural Expressions (TCEs) are crucial intangible heritage passed down through generations in indigenous communities. TK encompasses indigenous knowledge, practices, and innovations related to cultural traditions, natural resources, and ecosystems, while TCEs are heritage artistic and literary expressions that embody traditional culture and knowledge. TK and TCEs are deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of indigenous communities, and play a vital role in preserving their identities, values, and beliefs. However, they are vulnerable to exploitation and misappropriation, which can lead to cultural loss and undermine the rights of indigenous peoples. Thus, it is crucial to involve indigenous communities in decision-making and protect their rights to safeguard and preserve the integrity of TK and TCEs.

Clouds, those ever-present features of our sky, are more than just aesthetically pleasing; they are fundamental components of earth’s weather and climate systems. This chapter, “cloud formation and classification,” will embark on a journey to understand the fascinating processes that lead to their creation and the systematic ways in which they are categorized.
We will begin by exploring the essential ingredients for cloud formation: the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, the availability of condensation or ice nuclei, and the crucial mechanism of air cooling. We will delve into how rising air parcels cool adiabatically, reaching saturation and allowing water vapor to condense or deposit into the myriad forms we recognize as clouds.
Following the understanding of their genesis, we will navigate the internationally recognized system of cloud classification. This system, primarily based on a cloud’s altitude, appearance, and the processes that formed it, provides a common language for meteorologists and observers worldwide. We will learn to identify the main cloud types – high, mid-level, low, and vertically developing – and their associated characteristics, from the wispy cirrus to the towering cumulonimbus.
Furthermore, we will touch upon the significance of different cloud types in indicating current weather conditions and forecasting future weather. The appearance and evolution of clouds can offer valuable clues about atmospheric stability, moisture content, and the likelihood of precipitation.
By the end of this chapter, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of how clouds form the diverse array of cloud types that grace our skies, and their importance in the broader context of atmospheric science. Let’s unlock the secrets held within these visible masses of water and ice suspended in our atmosphere.

There are two assumptions necessary involved in the regression of repeatability. These are:
• The variances of the different measurements are equal and have their components in the same proportions, and
• The different measurements reflect genetically the same character. If these assumptions are not valid the repeatability concept becomes vague without precise meaning in relation to the variance components.
The repeatability differs very much depending on the following:
• The nature of the trait.
• The genetic properties of the population.
• Environmental conditions under which the individuals are kept or raised.
Repeatability indicates the proportion of observed differences in performance between animals caused by differences in real producing ability. That is say, repeatability of butterfat yield is 0.40, and if a cow has an age corrected butter fat yield of 30 kilograms above the herd average, her near producing ability will be equal to 30x 0.40 = 12 kg. above the herd average. This can also be explained in a different way, i.e., if two cows differ in one lactation by 30 kg in butter fat yield. They will have difference of 12 kg of butter fat in the next lactation.
Repeatability has a value 0 to 1 and may also be expressed in percentage. Repeatability of a trait is not a constant, and measurements error or generally, varying environmental conditions tend to increase VEt and thus to decrease repeatability, shrode et al (1960) have shown the effect of a change in environmental conditions on repeatability. They obtained repeatabilities of milk yield, butter fat yield and fat percentage as 0.37, 0.32 and 0.7 respectively and after improving the management removed some of the environmental variations that had marked the cows real producing abilities.

Introduction

The term value chain was first used and popularized by Michael Porter in his book “Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance” in 1985.

The value chain concept separates useful activities which allow the company as a whole to gain competitive advantage from the wasteful activities (which hinder the company from getting a lead in the market). Focusing on the value-creating activities could give the company many advantages. For example, the ability to charge higher prices; lower cost of manufacture; better brand image, faster response to threats or opportunities.

Strobilanthes (of Acanthaceae) is a morphologically diverse and species rich genus extensively distributed in South and Southeast Asia (Carine,1997 and Moylan et al 2004). Approximately 74 species are found along the Western Ghats of Southern India - Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot (Carine, 1997). The mass flowering of Strobilanthes with blue coloured flower makes them promising plants for gardens.  The genus is subjected to several systematic revisions recently (Bennett and Scotland 2003, Carine et al. 2000, 2004 Carine and Scotland 1998, 2000, 2002 and Venu 2007). The most distinguishing character of the genera (Strobilanthes) is its monocarpic nature, i.e., flowers after a long period of vegetative growth ranging 1-15 years and in a few cases flowers after 35 years. Bremekamp (1944) used the term ‘plietesials’ for such monocarpic plants that take several years to reach maturity before flowering.

The term “laboratory” refers to the room in the building specifically equipped for the chemical manipulation of radioisotope. The word “shall” is used to indicate procedure which are mandatory.

    1.    No unnessary materials are to be brought into the laboratory. Eating drinking, smoking and the using cosmetic in the laboratory are specifically forbidden.

    2.    Pipetting or the performance of any similar operation by mouth suction is prohibited.

    3.    Laboratory protective clothing (gloves, smocks, etc.) shall be left in the laboratory; gloves shall be removed before using the counting equipment.

    4.    Before leaving the laboratory, the hands shall be washed first, then checked with a beta-gamma survey meter. Contamination remaining after thorough washing shall be reported to the instructor.

    5.    If, in the course of work, personal contamination is suspected, a survey with a suitable instrument shall be made immediately, to be followed by the required cleansing. Routine precautionary surveys should be made at intervals.

    6.    No person shall work with active materials while having abrasions in the skin on the hands without using rubber gloves.