eChapters

Introduction

Increasing carbon content in the soil, through better management practices, produce a number of benefits in terms of soil biodiversity, soil fertility and soil water storage capacity and hence productivity. Soil carbon sequestration through the restoration of soil organic matter can further reverse land degradation and restore soil “health” through restoring soil biota and the array of associated ecological processes. In particular, through improved soil water storage and nutrient cycling, land use practices that sequester carbon will also contribute to stabilizing or enhancing food production and optimizing the use of synthetic fertilizer inputs, thereby reducing emissions of nitrous oxides from agricultural land. Conservation tillage practices also reduce significantly the use of fuel and hence gaseous emissions. Soil carbon sequestration is thus very cost effective and could take effect very quickly (FAO, 2008). It also constitutes a valuable win-win approach combining mitigation (CO₂ is removed from the atmosphere) and adaptation, through both increased agro-ecosystem resilience to climate variability and more reliable and better yields (production and income generation). Under climate change scenarios, increased temperature may enhance soil organic matter mineralization in colder regions of the world, releasing carbon dioxide from soils (FAO, 2008). Improved soil management will mitigate the effects of global warming by improved and permanent soil cover. Soil carbon storage was hitherto left out of international negotiations because of envisaged difficulties of validation of amounts and duration/permanency of sequestration. 

India has witnessed tremendous increase in the production of horticultural crops especially fruits since independence. Due to specialized scientific interventions and application of latest research tools, the country is now among the top fruit producing countries of the world ranking second next only to China. However, the productivity has still remained low as against area under the fruit cultivation. Several neglecting issues related to the production technology have remained unattended so far. The old and senile orchards are now reverting towards a declining trend of production because of plant age factor, non-compatible varieties and poor canopy management (Baba et al., 2011).

In the recent past declining productivity of old and dense orchards existing in abundance has become a matter of serious concern for the orchardists, traders as well as scientists. In India 30-35 per cent area under fruit crops is occupied by old, dense and diseased orchards. For overcoming the problem of unproductive and uneconomic orchards existing in abundance, large scale uprooting and replacement with new plantations (rehabilitation) will be a long term and expensive strategy. Therefore research efforts were initiated to standardize a technology for restoring the production potential of existing plantations by a technique called Rejuvenation. The term ‘Rejuvenation’ means renewal or making new or young again. As applied to the orchard tree it would mean restoring the productive capacity of the fruit trees. The meaning of ‘Rejuvenation’ according to Chamber’s dictionary is ‘to recover youth character or to grow again’. Obviously, this would apply to those plants which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower’s point of view.

The agroclimatic conditions of Indian Himalayan region are suitable for growing temperate fruit crops like apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond, walnut, pecan nut, kiwi, strawberry, hazelnuts, pistachio nuts and other small fruits. The region is extended over the states of Jammu and Kashmir (J & K), Himachal Pradesh (H.P.)  and Uttaranchal (U.A.) in the north-western Himalayan region and Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, hilly areas of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and West Bengal in the north -eastern Himalayan region. Other areas are ooty, Kodai Kanal and Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu. Mount Abu in Rajasthan and hilly areas of Punjab. Although, temperate fruit growing areas in India do not fall in the temperate zone, yet the prevailing temperate climatic conditions due to high altitude and nearness to snow covered Himalayas has made the temperate fruit cultivation possible.

The term “laboratory” refers to the room in the building specifically equipped for the chemical manipulation of radioisotope. The word “shall” is used to indicate procedure which are mandatory.

    1.    No unnessary materials are to be brought into the laboratory. Eating drinking, smoking and the using cosmetic in the laboratory are specifically forbidden.

    2.    Pipetting or the performance of any similar operation by mouth suction is prohibited.

    3.    Laboratory protective clothing (gloves, smocks, etc.) shall be left in the laboratory; gloves shall be removed before using the counting equipment.

    4.    Before leaving the laboratory, the hands shall be washed first, then checked with a beta-gamma survey meter. Contamination remaining after thorough washing shall be reported to the instructor.

    5.    If, in the course of work, personal contamination is suspected, a survey with a suitable instrument shall be made immediately, to be followed by the required cleansing. Routine precautionary surveys should be made at intervals.

    6.    No person shall work with active materials while having abrasions in the skin on the hands without using rubber gloves.

I. Definition

Solute transport in plants, translocation, primarily occurs in the phloem, but it can occur in the xylem.

II. Solute Transport in the Xylem

Some solutes are transported in the xylem

Water and dissolved ions are the main substances in vessels/tracheids

These materials are transported via transpiration stream

Xylem sap may also contain organic materials, usually in relatively low concentration (with a notable exception being maple sap in the spring which is comprised of 2% or more sucrose).

Substances move at different rates depending on matrix effects, metabolic needs, etc.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

The word “democracy” is derived from the Greek roots - ‘cracy’ meaning ‘rule of and ‘demos’ meaning ‘the people’. It is governance of the people, by the people, for the people. Rule by majority is, no doubt, an important feature of this system of governance; but the more important ingredient is rule by consultation - consultation between the people’s representatives on one hand and consultation with the officers on the other. ‘Decentralization’ means devolution of central authority among local units close to the areas served. Where authority is devolved by this process on people’s institution, it is ‘democratic decentralization’.

At the instance of the Prime Minister it was decided to give the process of the three-tier administration the strictly Indian name, “Panchayati Raj” which means a system of government. Panchayati Raj was conceived system of democratic local self-Government. Earlier, Mahatma Gandhi also advocated panchayati raj as the foundation of India’s political system, as a decentralized form of government in which each village would be responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj (“village self-governance”). The institution of Panchayat represented not only the collective will, but also the collective wisdom of the entire rural community.

The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, headed by M P Balwant Rai Mehta, was a committee appointed by the Government of India in January 1957 to examine the work of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953) and to suggest measures for their better work. The committee recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralisation’ which finally came to be known as 'Panchayati Raj' which would be a 3-tier system - 'Gram Panchayat' at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zilla Parishad at the district level.

Objectives

• Better understand the process and different stages of mitosis.
• Prepare your own specimens of onion root in which you can visualize all of the stages of mitosis.

Principle

The genetic information of plants, animals and other eukaryotic organisms resides in several (or many) individual DNA molecules, or chromosomes. For example, each human cell possesses 46 chromosomes, while each cell of an onion possesses 8 chromosomes. All cells must replicate their DNA when dividing.

DNA replication in eukaryotes is followed by the process called mitosis which assures that each daughter cell receives one copy of each of the replicated chromosomes. During the process of mitosis, the chromosomes pass through several stages known as prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The actual division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis and occurs during telophase. During each of the preceding stages, particular events occur that contribute to the orderly distribution of the replicated chromosomes prior to cytokinesis.

An onion root tip is a rapidly growing part of the onion and thus many cells will be in different stages of mitosis. The onion root tips can be prepared and squashed in a way that allows them to be flattened on a microscopic slide, so that the chromosomes of individual cells can be observed easily. The super coiled chromosomes during different stages of mitosis present in the onion root tip cells can be visualized by treating with DNA specific stains, like Feulgen stain and Acetocarmine stain.

Annuals

Annuals or seassonals are the group of plants which complete their life cycle in one season or in one year. Annuals are commonly known as seasonal as they complete the process of life like germination, growth flowering and seed formation in one season and finally the plant without. Annuals are widely used for garden decoration, cut flower and pot plants. They are frequently grown as bedding plant and in rock garden on the sides of lily pool and in shrubberies.

The informal associations of individuals who come close to seeking ways to enhance their living conditions are known as Self Help Groups (SHGs). They are generally self-governed and peer-controlled. An NGO or Agency usually governs people of comparable economic and social backgrounds to resolve their issues and improve their living conditions. It is a local committee of 10 to 20 women or men between 18 to 40 years. It acts as an intermediary financial committee. Self-help groups are a gaggle of each person on daily wages, and among that group, one person collects the cash and provides the case desired to the person in need.

Social media are electronic communication platforms that allow users to interact, create, share, retrieve and exchange information and ideas in different forms.

Social media refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create, share, and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks.

There are many forms of social media including blogs, micro-blogs, wikis, social networking sites, photo-sharing sites, instant messaging, video-sharing sites, podcasts, widgets, virtual worlds, and more. Ex: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn and Youtube etc.,

Role of social media in Transfer of Technology

Natural farming in India is witnessing growing acceptance, driven by concerns over environmental sustainability, soil health, and human well-being. To accelerate this transition away from chemical-intensive practices, both central and state governments, along with NGOs, have initiated comprehensive support systems that include policy frameworks, training, financial aid, and market facilitation.
A cornerstone of India’s natural farming policy is the Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP), launched under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY). This centrally sponsored scheme empowers states to implement natural farming by offering financial and technical assistance. States like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra have led in adopting cluster-based natural farming models with large-scale training and demonstration programs.
Farmer training is central to adoption. Institutions such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), agricultural universities, and NGOs conduct extensive workshops on techniques like Jeevamrit, mulching, intercropping, and water conservation. Learning is made accessible through practical exposure, model farms, and local-language manuals, supported by digital tools like mobile advisories and community radio.
Support mechanisms include input subsidies for cow-based formulations, certification under Jaivik Bharat, and marketing linkages. Farmer Producer, Organizations (FPOs) facilitate input procurement, processing, and branding, while digital platforms improve market access and price realization.

Organizations Indebtedness Towards Society

The organizations in the present world operate as an open system by having ongoing interactions with the society for their existence and effective functioning. There is an interdependence between corporations and societies and as such, company’s activities have a direct impact on the communities with which they work.  As a part of such interactions, the organizations use valuable resources of the society, for producing goods and services, which are exchanged with the customers for a profit margin. Due to these exchanges, the business organizations take away the profits reflecting the debt they owe to the society and the world.

Abstract

Deserts cover about one fifth of the earth’s land surface. Most of hot and dry deserts are near the Tropics of Cancer or the Tropics of Capricorn. Cold deserts are near the Arctic part of the word. Deserts are of two types: Hot and Cold. Some of the important among them are given in Table 1. Spread over an approximate area of 74,809sq km, the cold desert area in India covers 12 out of 131 desert blocks. Leh and Kargil districts of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir and Lahual and Spiti along with some part of Chamba and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh comprise this cold desert area (Fig 1). Similarly, their physiographic location and the consequent geomorphic processes shall unfolding in the region lend to this entire region a largely similar texture. In terms of area, the cold desert of Spiti may be too tiny as compared to the seven major cold deserts of the world (Table 1), but in terms of its high mountains, extreme climate and poor economic conditions of the people, it is one of the most scourged areas on the earth. Located in the interior of continents, away from any source of moisture, cold desert manifest resemble ecological verity and biological diversity. Their geographic remoteness and unfriendly climatic conductions greatly constrain economic growth and development. Envirmental degradation, which is on increase, is an additional cause of concern.

Definition of terminologies and concept

Variables: Variables are the characteristic, number or quantity which increases or decreases over time and takes different values in different situations. Variables are those, whose value varies according to the situations. For example, maize yield, Stover, fertilizer, labor, land, pesticides, etc.
 
Dependent variable: Variables whose value is dependent on independent variables. These variables take different values only in response to independent variables. Yield of maize is dependent on amount fertilizer, fertilizer application methods, labor, pesticides etc. So in this case maize yield is dependent variables while amount fertilizer, fertilizer application methods, labor, pesticides are independent variables. However in other situation, maize yield can be used as independent variables also.

Before the invention of N fertilizer, mineralization of organic N ( present in dead plants and animals or manure) was the main method used to obtain ammonium and nitrate nitrogen. Mineralization is conducted by soil microbes resulting in ammonium ion. Most Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of Nitrate (NO-₃). Ammonium is converted to Nitrate with the help of  soil bacteria. Nitrogen is a very mobile element and is easily lost from the soil. Ammonium (NH₄+) can be converted to Ammonia (NH₃). The gaseous ammonia can be lost to the atmosphere.  Nitrate can be lost through denitrification. Nitrate nitrogen is reduced to nitrous oxide (N₂O), elemental nitrogen (N₂) and nitric oxide (NO). All are volatile. Denitrification occurs under conditions of high water availability and temperatures higher than 10^ºC.

PLANT NUTRITION

Plants use inorganic minerals for nutrition, whether grown in the field or in a container. Complex interactions involving weathering of rock minerals, decaying organic matter, animals, and microbes take place to form inorganic minerals in soil. Roots absorb mineral nutrients as ions in soil water. Many factors influence nutrient uptake for plants. Ions can be readily available to roots or could be “tied up” by other elements or the soil itself. Soil too high in pH (alkaline) or too low (acid) makes minerals unavailable to plants.

Q. 1 Which option about the statements made below is correct?
(1) The cooling system maintains engine temperature at 71 to 82ºC for petrol engines.
(2) The thermostat valve begins to open at about 60oC and opens widely at about 71ºC.
(A) Statement (1) is true, but statement (2) is false.
(B) Statement (2) is true, but statement (1) is false.
(C) Both statements (1) and (2) are true.
(D) Both Statements (1) and (2) are false.

Procedure: Measurement of smoke point of given oils: Heat the given oils in a deep frying pan till fumes come out from oil. Record the temperature when the fumes come out and noted it as a ‘smoke point’. Cool the oil by keeping oil pan at room temperature. After cooling repeat the heating of same oils 2nd and 3rd time to measure the smoke point and record the observations

“Only those who attempt the absurd can achieve the impossible.”

- Albert Einstein

Motivation– An inner state of need or desire that activates an individual to do something that will satisfy that need or desire.

The processes that are responsible for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward the beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries