eChapters

Green composites provide opportunities to reduce dependence on petroleum-derived materials while maintaining useful mechanical and functional performance. This chapter examines the fundamentals of green composites and the major challenges limiting their wider adoption. Important issues include poor interfacial bonding, nanoparticle dispersion, variability of natural fibres, mechanical and thermal limitations, processing difficulties, cost, scalability, and commercialization barriers. Nanoparticle reinforcement is explored as a means of improving tensile strength, stiffness, thermal stability, electrical conductivity, and barrier properties. The chapter also discusses green processing, advanced characterization, emerging applications, sustainability assessment, life-cycle assessment, and future research directions for developing high-performance and commercially viable green composite systems.

Enzymes are biological catalysts that regulate biochemical reactions and control metabolic pathways. This chapter explains how metabolomics can contribute to the discovery and functional characterization of enzymes by identifying changes in metabolite concentrations associated with enzymatic activity. Comparative metabolomics, gene knockout experiments, stable-isotope labeling, and multi-omics integration are discussed as approaches for linking metabolites with enzyme functions. Analytical platforms such as GC–MS, LC–MS, and NMR, together with databases including KEGG, BRENDA, HMDB, and METLIN, support metabolite identification and pathway analysis. The chapter also considers experimental validation, bioinformatics, challenges associated with unknown metabolites, and future applications involving artificial intelligence and computational biology.

The march of weather factors during crop period is never smooth and regular. Agriculture, because of its dependance on climate is inevitably subjected to unpredictable long and short term fluctuation characteristic of atmosphere conditions. Climate introduces an element of risk in farming which makes it particularly hazardous occupation.

A Weather hazard in this context can be defined as any type of extreme weather condition that can damage the crops and animals leading to abnormal decrease in production and income. The extent to which these hazards create risk depends on the time of occurrence, intensity and duration of the hazard besides the age, stage of development and inherent resistance of the crop or livestock involved. Major abnormalities affecting the crop production are:

5.1 Introduction
In random sampling it is assumed in prior that the population is divisible into a finite number of distinct and identifiable units and these units are known as sampling units. The smallest unit into which the population can be divide, is called an elementary unit (element) of the population. A group of such units is known as cluster. When such cluster is treated as sampling unit, then the sampling procedure adopted is known as cluster sampling. If the entire area containing the population under study is divided into smaller area segments and each element in the population belongs to one and only one such area segment, the sampling is sometimes known as area sampling.
Generally, identification and location of an element requires considerable time. However, once an element is located, the time taken for surveying a few neighbouring elements is small. Thus, the main function in cluster sampling is to specify clusters or to divide the population into appropriate number of clusters. Clusters are generally made up of neighbouring elements and hence elements within a cluster happen to be of similar nature. As a matter of fact, the number of elements in a cluster should be small and the number of clusters should be large. The required number of clusters can be selected either by equal or unequal probabilities of selection. All the units in the selected clusters are enumerated completely i.e. complete enumeration is made in all the selected clusters.

7.1 Introduction
In chapter 5, the cluster sampling has been discussed in which clusters were considered as sampling units and all the elements in the selected clusters were enumerated completely. It has been stated there that the cluster sampling is economical under certain circumstance but the method restricts the spread of sample over the population which results generally in increased sampling variance of the estimator under consideration. It is, therefore, logical to expect that the efficiency of the estimator will be increased by distributing the elements over a large numbers of clusters. Hence instead of observing all the units in the selected clusters, one may like to observe only few elements of the selected clusters. This will involve the sampling work to be done also within the selected clusters. If we do so, the process of selection will involve sampling work to be done at two stage, one for selecting the clusters where sampling units are the clusters and the second for selecting the units (elements) within the selected clusters where sampling units are the elements.
The process of sampling can be done at more than two stages. In this case the first stage unit will be larger than the second stage units and the second stage units will be larger than the third stage units and so on. Due to process of sampling in stages, such sampling is called “Multistage sampling.”

12.1 Chi-Square Variate
The square of a standard normal variate is known as a chi – square variate or chi square statistic with one degree of freedom.

Abstract

Rice is the staple and principle food of about half the human race and is often the main source of calories. Navara is a unique rice cultivar indigenous to Kerala, gifted with extra short growth duration. It is mainly used for the preparation of Navara kizhi, which is an effective remedy for rheumatic complaints, neuro muscular disorders and body rejuvenation. It is traditionally given as a supplementary diet to the under-weight and also consumed as a replenishing drink called ‘Karkadaka kanji’ during the monsoon season along with certain other herbal medicines.Despite the Navara is known for its special medicinal attributes to the producers, consumers and other actors of the value chain, there is a declining trend of Navara rice cultivation noticed (2000 acres to less than 50 acres) in the state (The Hindu, November 28, 2010), which entails the loss of biological and cultural diversity associated with this unique rice.The study attempted to identify and analyze the actors involved in the value chain of Navaraon the conservation perspective. The primary data required to analyze actors in the value chain were collected from the farmers, input suppliers, processors, retailers and consumers of Palakkad, through key informant method, focused group discussion, and structured interview schedules and analysed through Value chain mapping tool and SWOT analysis. The secondary data regarding the rice and its properties were collected from websites and publications. The study revealed that the cultivation of Navarashould be purely organic to preserve its medicinal value. The cultural practices except ploughing, such as weeding, manuring, harvesting etc. are done manually. Application of chemical fertilizers will increase the vegetative growth of Navaraand subject to lodging of plants and at the same it also affects the quality of rice.

Introduction

There are large numbers of wheat based products such as fermented pan bread, flat breads including chapati, biscuits, noodles and pasta products. Each product has its own specific requirements. For example fermented pan bread needs wheat with higher protein content, stronger and extensible gluten. Chapati requires hard wheat with high protein content and medium gluten strength. Waxy wheats have been found associated with improved shelf life of breads. White salted Japanese noodles need partial waxy wheats with soft grain characteristics and medium protein content and gluten strength. Partial waxy wheats with comparatively lower amylose content and higher starch paste viscosity improve texture of white salted noodles. Yellow alkaline noodles need comparatively harder wheat with medium strong gluten and without waxy trait. Pasta made from durum wheats requires stronger gluten, high protein content and higher content of yellow pigments. In this chapter detailed account of both fermented and flat breads will be given.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry has long tradition since dawn of the civilization. Farmers and/or land owners integrate different woody perennials in their cropping system along with the animal unit depending upon the physiographic and climatic conditions. It is well proven fact that such adopted systems/practices are location specific and information on such systems is very limited. Therefore, the benefits accrued from such systems are underexploited in comparison to its potential. With depletion of agricultural lands due to shift in rainfall pattern, landslide, run off, regular leaching of nutrients, drying up of natural springs and lack of irrigation facilities have resulted into uneconomical agriculture in the mountain regions of India in general and particular in Jammu & Kashmir. Most of the villages in mountains witness migration on a large scale and lands turning up barren and un-productive. The agroforestry system can provide a viable solution for such problems.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges facing humanity with implications for food production, natural ecosystems, freshwater supply, health, habitat destruction biodiversity, etc. According to the latest scientific assessment, the earth’s climate system has demonstrably changed on both global and regional scales since the pre-industrial era. Since the very beginning of civilization, land resources have been under tremendous pressure for food and forest products. Anthropogenic activities have affected the biosphere through changes in the landuse and forest management activities, thus altering the natural balance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The environmental security thus, has become a serious concern across the globe. The meteorological records have shown significant increase in the environmental temperature referred to as the global warming. Human activities have increased green house gases and raised global temperature by 0.50 C over the past 100 yr, which may increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C during the next century (Bhadwal and Singh 2002). Evidence of this global crisis include the rise in global sea levels by 3.4 mm yr-1 ((http://climate. nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/) through the melting of the world’s snow peaks and glaciers, which poses a threat to millions living in coastal areas. A drastic effect on splitting of huge glacier in the Antarctica has already been registered, which has thrown a challenge to save the earth, lest the very survival of the mankind will be jeopardized. Each degree rise in temperature will displace the limits of tolerance of land species some 125 km towards the poles or 150 m vertically on mountains. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 20 to 30 per cent of plants and animals could be at risk of extinction if average global temperatures reach the projected levels (Hawkes et al., 2000).

INTRODUCTION

The latest Assessment Report (AR-5) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The report further pointed about the warming of atmosphere and ocean; shrinking of glaciers, sea level rise and more frequent and intense extreme weather events. The most critical information pertains to the increase of the concentrations of greenhouse gases. The report figures that human influence, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, has been the “extremely likely” dominant cause of global warming over the past several decades. Based on the scientific evidences, it is reported “warming by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible impacts globally” (Edenhofer et al. 2015).

Abstract

Our biological heritage, from genes to ecosystems, is threatened on a global scale. Biological species, the prime focus on biodiversity, provide all our basic requirements such as food, medicine, fuel and things for well being, make nature’s sustainability through purifying air and water, pollinating crops, etc. and motivate us at a deep emotional level. During the course of human civilization and consequent urbanization process biological species and environment have been degraded. It is estimated that about 20% of all species are expected to be lost within 30 years and 50% or more by the end of the 21^st century [36]. The current rates of species extinction are 1000–10,000 times higher than the background rate of 10-7 species per year inferred from fossil record. Today, we seem to be losing two to five species per hour from tropical forests alone. This amounts to a loss of 16 m population per year or 1800 populations per hour. This led to biodiversity crisis in the global level [23,26,35] and generated an outpouring of research on biodiversity for the last 25 years. As a result we could have a general understanding about the distribution of biodiversity, the proximate causes (habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, invasive species, pollution, resource exploitation) contributing to its loss, sketches of the root causes of biodiversity loss, and the outlines of better management policies. Since the establishment of the convention on biological diversity in 1992, conservation of biodiversity has become a priority concern on the international agenda.

Abstract

There has been consistent narrowing down of gap in our knowledge about various ‘omics’ as the omics’ based disciplines are filled with valuable information emerging from research. During the last two decades, the practice of genetics has not only changed the broad horizons of medicine but also found its niche through “high-dimensional biology” there by allowing geneticists to reframe the good-old definition of gene from a locatable region of genome sequence involved in heritability to a locatable region of genome sequence associated with a functional region or a functor. Various other scientists viewed genetics ‘‘as the study of single genes and their effects’’ and genomics as ‘‘the study not just of single genes, but of the functions and interactions of all the genes in the genome.’’ We will cover the qualitative difference that bridges various disciplines casing Omics.

Introduction

Growth enhancement technologies have been widely embraced in the livestock industry to improve growth, efficiency and carcass traits. For over 50 years, estrogenic and androgenic hormone implants were widely used in the cattle feeding industry, and it is estimated that approximately 97 percent of feedlot cattle in the U.S. receive one or more implants during the finishing phase (Barham et al., 2003; Tatum, 2006). There is a large body of literature that indicates the positive growth enhancement effects which implants impart on growing and finishing cattle and producers have extensively used implants to increase live body weight, improve average daily gain and feed efficiency, and reduce the number of days cattle are on feed (Apple et al., 1991; Duckett et al., 1997;Milton and Horton, 1996; Perry et al., 1991). Likewise, there is a growing body of literature that indicates the positive response on growth and carcass characteristics that finishing cattle have to beta-adrenergic agonists. The hog industry, and more recently, the cattle feeding industry have increased utilization of beta-adrenergic agonists to improve the efficiency of production. While the use of Ractopamine hydrochloride (Paylean^®, Elanco Animal Health, Greenfield, Indiana) has been used extensively in hog production since its approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1999, similar pharmaceutical feed additives have only recently been implemented in commercial cattle feeding operations. Beta-adrenergic agonist use in fed cattle has substantially increased following the FDA approval of Ractopamine hydrochloride (Optaflexx^®, Elanco Animal Health, Greenfield, Indiana) in 2003, and the approval of Zilpaterol hydrochloride (Zilmax^®, Merck Animal Health, Summit, New Jersey) in 2006. The use of both Ractopamine hydrochloride (RH) and Zilpaterol hydrochloride (ZH) have shown to elicit similar improvements in live weight gain, average daily gain, and feed efficiency as those reported in hormone implants (Allen et al., 2009; Avendano-Reyes et al., 2006; Beckett et al., 2009; Elam et al., 2009; Gruber et al., 2007; Kellermeier et al., 2009; Scramlin et al., 2010). In addition, these compounds have been reported to have profound effects on hot carcass weight, Longissimus muscle area and carcass cutability (Gruber et al., 2007; Hilton et al., 2010; Rathmann et al., 2009; Scramlin et al., 2010; Shook et al., 2009; Vogel et al., 2009). It is because of this that cattle feeders have drastically increased use of beta-agonists since their FDA approval, and a growing portion of the fed cattle population receive a dietary beta-agonist supplement that is provided within the final 20 to 30 days of finishing.

Agriculture has always played and will continue to play a dominant role in the growth of Indian economy in the foreseeable future. It represents the largest sector producing around 28 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP). Achieving self sufficiency in food grains production has ensured a high priority for agricultural sector in the successive development plans of the country. Agricultural production is grossly affected by attack of pests/diseases on various crops and the losses in food grains only are to the tune of Rs 90,000 crores each year in India. The prevention of such losses needs substantial consideration and accordingly forewarning of pests and diseases is essential for taking timely control measures. These are also required for assessing losses. Pest/disease infestation in crops is highly influenced by meteorological factors. The weather based modeling for early warning of pest/disease infestation may provide appropriate tool for investigating and predicting pest/disease status.

Introduction

Huge population in the developing countries requires increased amounts of food and fiber from a shrinking agricultural land base. Intensification of agriculture through expansion of irrigation facilities, introduction of high yielding varieties and application of increased amounts of agrochemicals has been in progress. Besides, the cultural practices like spacing, crop rotations, sowing times and tillage methods have been modified to achieve maximum productively per unit time from the available land. However, along with various technological achievements, sever outbreaks of insect pests, diseases and weeds in agricultural crops have also occurred. Many hitherto unknown species have assumed serious status and some of the serious pests have developed resistance to one or more groups of pesticides. In addition, pesticides have contaminated different components of our environment and pose a potential health hazard to consumers. Therefore, the future pest problems will have to be tackled in an environmentally benign manner as a part of a sustainable crop production technology (Dhaliwal and Heinrichs, 1998; Koul et al., 2004; Koul, 2008).

Introduction

The integrated nature and high diversity of the soil health system may contribute a significant degree of resilience under conditions of disturbance, particularly at lower (largely microbial) trophic levels. Nonetheless, the conversion of natural vegetation to agricultural land results in major changes in both physical organization and community structure in the soil, including species loss and changes in dominance among the surviving biota. This then becomes the resource with which agriculture must work and any targets should realistically be set in relation to the potential equilibria in agricultural systems rather than the natural systems from which they are derived, as has sometimes been advocated. More importantly, it is clear that subsequent agricultural practices may also impair soil health through significant impacts on the composition and structure of the soil biological community and consequently on soil-based ecosystem functions and services. Damage to ecosystem functions can arise both owing to an inadequate supply of resources (carbon, energy, nutrients or water) and through the impact of intensive substitutive practices such as continuous mechanical tillage, the use of pesticides and excessive amounts of fertilizers. These interventions may also impact on soil functions by destroying or changing the habitat of the soil organisms and their capacity to repair it.

Introduction

Increased food production is required to ensure food security in the face of the rising world population. The strategy will include cropping of the rising world population. The strategy will include cropping of the new geographical areas and increase in the per hectare crop yields, through better crop management; losses of the food in storage will have to be minimized.

The food grains and their products are susceptible to deterioration by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors. These include the high temperature, moisture, micro-organisms, mites, insects and rodents. Together they account for loss of about 25% of food grains worldwide. The losses are highest in the tropical and sub-tropical areas where conditions are relatively conductive for rapid growth and multiplication of the organisms that cause damage to the food materials, especially insects. Reliable pesticide and storage techniques are required for limiting the damage to food grains in storage in most of the developing countries of the areas.

Introduction

The United Nations’ Food and Agricultural Organisation reported that global aquaculture is increasing by 11 percent per year and is the world’s fastest growing food-producing sector. More than 38 million people are employed in aquaculture and associated industries worldwide, and 131 aquatic species are currently being commercially cultured. In 2002, Asia led the world in the aquaculture production, with about 12.4 million tonnes, while Europe and America together produced 1.2 million tonnes.

Among the Asian countries, India ranks second in aquaculture and third in capture fisheries. Freshwater aquaculture in India is mainly based on Indian major carps (Labeo rohita, Catla catla and Cirrhinus mrigala) with an annual production of 1.8 million tonnes, and exotic carps, which together contribute to over 87% of the total aquaculture production of 2.2 million tonnes. Disease problems represent important constraint to the aquaculture industry. The need to control endemic diseases imposes severe year-on-year costs on producers. The advances made in the development of vaccines for diseases of Indian major carps are very meager.

Introduction

Ornamental fish keeping in aquarium has emerged as the second most popular hobby next to photography. As these fishes usually are kept in aquarium, they are popularly known as ‘Aquarium Fishes’. These beautiful fishes form an important commercial component of aquaculture, providing for aesthetic requirements and upkeep of the environment. At present the market for ornamental fish in the world for public aquaria is less than 1% and over 99% of the market is still confined to hobbyist. In India the hobby of ornamental fish keeping is nearly 70 years old. The brilliant, flamboyant color and exotic appearance of fish appeal almost for every one, children and aged alike. According to psychiatrists, placing aquaria with ornamental fishes in the patient’s house could treat certain type of mentally disordered problems. The relatively minimum requirement of space or attention compared to other pet animals is the reason of growing interest in keeping aquaria all over.

Introduction

India is an agrarian society where 70% of the population depends on agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries. Fishery is an important sector, its planning and development largely depends on a sound and reliable data and information on resource, production, marketing and distribution. Generating reliable information basically needs identification, conceptualization, classification and sound scientific techniques for collection, compilation and analysis of data. Geographical Information System emerged as an efficient tool to access, organize, update and analyse the information and to utilize it in an optimal way.

A proper computer based information system is the need of day to organize such complex data in order to draw reliable conclusions which may help in drawing action programmes. This multidimensional nature of information on topography, physico-chemical parameters, socio-economics and fish production data can only be handled and processed by Geographical Information System (GIS).

Introduction

In almost all biological studies, it will be impossible to account for every individual in a population. Therefore, it is necessary to examine a sub-group of the total population and extrapolate from this to the whole population. The process by which the sub-group of the population is selected is sampling. Nearly, all statistical tests make a fundamental assumption that sampling of individual will be at random from all the individuals that could possibly be sampled. It is very important that timing is taken into account either by sampling strategy or by later analysis. Most population will be affected by season, time of day and local weather conditions.

What is considered here is the problem faced by an ecologist working in the field and trying to design a suitable sampling strategy. The use of the very powerful statistical technique; analysis of variance (ANOVA) is more common in the situation of a controlled experiment, where, we are analyzing the effects of different levels of a treatment (e.g. feed, fertilizer, temperature etc.) on some measured aspect of population, Then, to get a true estimate of the effect of the treatment, experimental design will be of paramount importance.

Understanding biology and genetics at molecular level has become very important for better understanding and manipulation of genome architecture and this creates new opportunities to streamline plant breeding. Breeding is simply defined as the selective mating of individuals of a population to isolate or combine desired morphological, physiological or genetic traits such as appearance, yield, and disease resistance. This is performed with the assistance of identifiable traits.

Molecular markers have contributed significantly in this respect and have been widely used in plant science in a number of ways, including genetic fingerprinting, diagnostics, identification of duplicates and selecting core collections, determination of genetic distances, genome analysis, identification of markers associated with desirable breeding traits which are useful in marker assisted breeding, genomics and development of transgenics. Use of these markers also significantly reduces breeding time and cycles required for crop improvement. This is reflected in the fact that complete molecular and genetic maps have now been constructed for at least 20 major crop species and many more have been characterized at less defined level and the genomes of a few model plant species were completely sequenced.

Consumption of fruit and vegetables has dramatically increased globally during the past a few decades. These are living perishable biological entities which perform a number of metabolic functions and have a short life span. Once the fruit is harvested, respiration and transpiration continue, but only for as long as the fruit can draw on its own food reserves and moisture. It is this limited ability to continue vital metabolic functions which define fruit as perishable. It is also estimated that about 20% of all fruits and vegetables produced are lost each year due to spoilage. The process of the fruit spoilage is just the decomposition of the fruit itself. Once harvested, this begins to deteriorate until eventually it becomes unfit for consumption. This deterioration is known as decay and that leads to spoilage. Latter may be defined as “any sensory change (physical, visual, olfactory or flavour) which the consumer considers to be unacceptable. The gradual changes which cause deterioration and decay in fruits are due to certain organisms and chemicals present in the food and outside the food. Carbohydrates play a major role in the fruit spoilage process (Prasanna et al., 2007) by way of depolymerization leading to decreased molecular size with concomitant increase in the levels of ripening inducing specific enzymes, whose target differ from fruit to fruit. The major classes of cell wall polysaccharides that undergo modifications during ripening are pectins, cellulose, starch, and hemicelluloses (Hallet et al., 2005). The focus of this chapter is to provide information about carbohydrate metabolism during fruit spoilage.

Recent awareness of consumers towards innovative probiotic fermented food products containing friendly bacteria and healthier foods has coined the term functional foods. Food development in the world is taking place mainly in three strategic directions as functional foods, organic foods and national foods. Every year the global demand is increasing at the rate of 15–20 %.

Fermentation by newer technologies involves specific strain of lactic acid bacteria. This brings specific fermentation under controlled conditions resulting in a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities.

Ash gourd (syn:wax gourd, winter melon, white gourd, white pumpkin, ash pumpkin, Chinese preserving melon and hairy melon) is a vegetable belonging to family Cucurbitaceae and genus Benincasa with only one cultivated species, Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (2n=2x=24). Ash gourd is an important vegetable especially in the Indo-China region, which is also the major producer of ash gourd (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, 1997), but it is also a potential crop of tropical Africa and America (Sirohiet al., 2005).

Dall code: A code of nomenclature prepared by W.H. Dall at the direction of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1877).

Damage boundary: The level of injury where damage can be measured.

Damage threshold: Pest population above which crop loss occurs.

Damage: Measurable reduction in crop growth or yield; or a measurable loss of host utility, most often including yield quantity, quality, or aesthetic appeal.

Damping off: Infection of newly formed roots and stems of young seedlings by fungi or bacteria, typically at soil level, resulting in decay or seedling death.

Danger: A signal word used on pesticide labels to inform the user that the pesticide is highly toxic, as defined by FIFRA. The word poison and the skull and crossbones symbol always accompany the signal word danger.

R

Rabbet: A rectangular groove or cut made in the edge of a board, so that another similar cut may fit into it to form a rabbet joint.

Rack and pinion: A gear arrangement consisting of a toothed bar that meshes with a pinion. These are used to transform circular motion in to rectilinear motion and vice versa.

Rack and pinion steering: A steering system in which the rotation of pinion gear at the end of the steering column moves a toothed bar (the rack) left or right to transmit steering movements.

Radial arm: The movable cantilever, which supports the drilling saddle in a radial drilling machine.

Radial bearing: Bearing made with cylindrical or with barrel shaped rollers. The direction of action of the load transmitted to the axis of shaft.

Radial drill: l.A drilling machine in which the drill spindle can be moved along a horizontal arm, which itself can be rotated about a vertical pillar. 2. A heavy drilling machine, so constructed that the position of the drill can be adjusted to the work without moving the latter.

Radial engine: An engine, which has stationary cylinders, arranged radially around a common crankshaft.

Cattle Breeding Policies and Programmes in the Planning Process

It is necessary to see how the issues relating to Cattle Breeding have been dealt with in the successive Plan periods starting from the First Five Year Plan. It is seen that, while the issue of surplus cattle has been handled in different ways in the various Plan documents, some discussing this issue at great length and other remaining completely silent on the subject, other issues such as cattle development, genetic improvement and breeding etc., have also received varying degrees of emphasis in the different Plans. 

Anacardium occidentale is a medium-sized tree, spreading, and evergreen, much branched; grows to a height of 12 m. When grown on lateritic, gravelly, coastal sandy areas, it rarely exceeds 6 m and develops a spreading habit and globose shape with crown diameter to 12 m but, if grown inland on loams; it reaches 15 m tall and is much branched, with a smaller (4-6 m) crown diameter. The root system of a mature A. occidentale, when grown from the seed, consists of a very prominent taproot and a well developed and extensive network of lateral and sinker roots. Leaves simple, alternate, coriaceous, glabrous, obovate, rounded at ends, 10-18 x 8-15 cm, with short petiole, pale green or reddish when young and dark green at mature. Rai and Vatsala (1985) studied the dermal morphology and stomatal ontogeny of Spondias pinnata Kurz., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr., Anacardium occidentale L., Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F. and Mangifera indica L. are studied. The cuticle is thick in H. arnottiana, A. occidentale and M. indica, but is thin in S. pinnata and L. coromandelica. Based on the shape of epidermal cells, the five species are categorised into three: cells in both upper and lower epidermis sinuous (A. occidentale, H. arnottiana, S. pinnata); upper sinuous and lower polygonal (M. indica) and upper polygonal and lower sinuous (L. coromandelica). Stomatal ontogeny aperigenous (L. coromandelica), paramesoperigenous (A. occidentale) and anisomesogenous (M. indica, H. arnottiana). S. pinnata is peculiar in that it possesses three different types of stomata, aperigenous, hemiparamesoperigenous and paramesoperigenous; whereas, in all the other four species, only one type of stomatal ontogenesis exists. Except S. pinnata, all the other species possess epidermal appendages. Unicellular trichomes occur in A. occidentale and H. arnottiana, and multicellular glandular trichomes in A. occidentale, M. indica and L. coromandelica. The multicellular hairs are found in A. occidentale in specialized pockets in two rows on either side of the major veins - a unique feature which is reported for the first time.

Pattern of Growth Flushes in a Bearing Tree

Two or three peak periods of growth are usually observed in a bearing cashew tree, even though under favourable conditions the stray shoot growth may occur almost every month. The pattern of growth of a bearing tree consists of a generative flower flush (reproductive) and a vegetative flush. The vegetative flush, consisting of lateral shoots, always develops soon after the main crop has matured. Flowering is terminal and is universally preceded by the vegetative flush.

There are two types of branching in cashew, intensive and extensive.

Though more than 1500 species contain volatile aromatic principles, only around 50 species serve as commercial source of essential oil and aroma-chemicals. Among these, aromatic crops under large-scale cultivation hardly exceeds two dozens. Important aromatic plants of world are classified according to economic part used, growth habit, habitat, crop duration and propagation method besides usual botanical classification.

Introduction

The economic choice of any process is the criterion for efficient utilization of the by-product that is produced along side of main product. During manufacture of major dairy products, the dairy industry also ends up in producing different by-products. Various by-products of dairy industry are skim milk, butter milk , whey and ghee residue. Dairy industry is particularly confronted with the problem of economic utilization of whey and ghee residue. The techno-economical problems associated with utilization of these by-products, is now receiving considerable attention. More efficient, cost effective and sophisticated technologies have opened up new vistas for manufacture of number of derived by-products. Further more the market for dairy by-products, as an ingredients in other consumer food products like snacks, ready meals and microwavable food products, has been growing.

Over the past several years, there has been significant change in consumer perception on quality and food safety. Consumers are demanding healthy, nutritious and cost-effective products processed under controlled hygienic conditions. Food safety concern, in recent years, has become dominant and important. The requirement of food safety and quality assurance has never been so demanding as it is now. Globally food safety is being addressed independent of food quality. In anticipation of consumer demands on food safety, food sanitary standards at national and international levels are under constant review. Several inter governmental agencies/organizations are engaged in work related to quality assurance and food safety. Amongst these World Health Organization (WHO) and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) play the major role in protecting public health and defining standards of quality and safety aspects of foods for regional and or world wide usage.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, one should be able to understand:
    ·    The Indian ICT industry and the emerging market of Africa: overview
    ·    Regulations and their impact on international business, with reference to the emerging African market
    ·    Some of the business regulations relevant to the ICT industry
    ·    Regulatory reforms and their impact on business: examples from global markets
    ·    African regulatory situation by means of field survey and secondary data
    ·    Regulatory assessment and recommendations for the Indian ICT industry

Abstract
Electricity is one of the most important input factors for the economic development of the country. There is huge and increasing demand of electricity in India and it is continuously increasing with the countries corporate and economic growth. The Indian power sector has responded significantly and made significant progress in reducing the gap between demand and supply. Indian power sector offers one of the highest growth potential to players in this industry. However, this is subject to some challenges like to generate more power and to generate and distribute power efficiently and at minimum cost. The present study covers five selected companies operating in power sector for the financial performance using ratio analysis and ANOVA. Out of selected companies NTPC performance is better than other companies but overall Indian power sector needs to reduce too much dependence on coal and needs to generate more power availability, quality and reliability for successful future and growth of the country. 

Introduction

In the recent years, climate change emerged as the single most pressing problem globally, and accordingly received an increased attention (Berrang-Ford et al., 2011). It is evident that human activities are responsible for the climate change. Natural processes may also lead to climate variability and change. The climate change forecasts resulted from simulation models indicate that the future climate is likely to turn into more capricious nature with more occurrences of extreme events (IPCC, 2013b). Future projections according to the World Bank (2010) reveal the need of raising food production by 1.8% per annum between 2005 and 2050 due to climate change rather than 1% per annum if there were no impact of climate change. The effect of climate change can be seen on the quantity and quality of various components in the global hydrologic cycle (Milly et al., 2005; Bates et al., 2008).

In South Asia, vulnerabilities to the climate change are the largest in semi-arid and arid countries, where rainfall is concentrated over a few monsoon months, year to year variations are high, and where water resources are decreasing (Lenton, 2004). Cruz et al. (2007) indicated that climate trends and variability can be characterized by increased air temperatures, which are more pronounced during the winters compared to the summers. Across the entire Asia, both spatial and temporal variability in rainfall trends observed during the past few decades may be attributed to climate change. It is likely to happen that climate change will extend the dry season when negligible or very low flows occur, which particularly affects the water management process due to inability to rely on water storage reservoirs or groundwater resources situated at great depths (Giertz et al., 2006).

Abstract

In Gadilam river basin, groundwater is found in both hard rock and sedimentary terrain and is the most important source of rural/urban drinking water supply. Gadilam river basin has gained its importance due to the presence of Neyveli Lignite open cast mine (NLC), group of industrial estate (SIPCOT), extensive depressurization of Cuddalore aquifer and boreholes of New Veeranam Scheme (NVS) in the downstream of the basin. A total of 178 water samples were collected in four different seasons at various lithologies. The collected samples were analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters using standard procedures. Geochemical indicators of groundwater were used to identify the chemical processes that control hydrogeochemsitry. Interpretation of hydrogeochemical data suggests that leaching of ions followed by weathering and anthropogenic impact controls the chemistry of the groundwater. Isotopic study reveals that recharge from meteoric source in sedimentary terrain and rock water interaction with significant evaporation prevails in hard rock region. This thorough understanding helps us to make judicial usage and to maintain the quality of this commodity.

Abstract

Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) consisting of water soluble organic molecules and by products of organic decomposition and chemical degradation processes, constitutes a critical link in carbon and nutrient cycles. The quality, or chemical and physical character, of DOC affects the degree to which it is transformed by biological and chemical processes. The significance of DOC was studied in layered coastal aquifers of the Pondicherry region during four different seasons. Pondicherry region has varied geological set up ranging from Cretaceous to Recent formations. A total of 52 groundwater samples were collected from various aquifers like Alluvium, Tertiary(Upper Cuddalore, Lower Cuddalore) and Cretaceous for two different seasons of pre- monsoon(PRM), and post-monsoon (POM). The samples were analyzed for major ions and DOC. The range of DOC in the study area is 0-14 mg/l. Very high DOC concentrations were measured during PRM in the samples from Alluvium and Lower Cuddalore Formation. The samples of these formations were compared with pH, Ionic strength, log pCO₂ and carbonate minerals concentration. The alluvial aquifer shows that pH governed dissolution along the coastal tracts and in Upper Cuddalore formation it’s based on interaction between aquifer matrix and groundwater.

Abstract

Groundwater is most favored as a source of drinking water in all over world. It is often thought to be cleaner and easier to treat when compared with surface water and as a result, many wells have been sunk. Uranium and other radionuclides in water can lead to health problems if present in higher concentrations. In order to study the behavior and to understand the influence of lithology in groundwater of Madurai district, a study was conducted by collecting a total of 216 samples of different seasons (Premonsoon, South west monsoon, Northeast monsoon and Post monsoon) with respect to lithology and the number of samples was depending upon their spatial coverage in the study area. The groundwater samples were analysed for U, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO₃^-, Cl^-, SO₄^2-, PO₄^3-, NO₃^-, F^-, H₄SiO₄, pH, EC, TDS. It was identified that the higher concentration of Uranium (156 ppb) were noted in the northern part of the study area. They are chiefly restricted to the Granitic terrain and nearby Charnockitic regions. The weathering process induces the release of higher U ions from the granitic terrain and the evaporated recharge water from the tank /reservoir  also induces the release of U ions from the rock matrix, it may also be due to fertilizer enriched agricultural return flows. The key source for all these processes and hydrogeochemical processes is identified to be lithology which inturn controls all the other processes in the study area.

Abstract

Amongst all types of major land-use change, extending irrigated agriculture using a surface-water source has the greatest influence on groundwater – both significantly increasing recharge and changing water quality as excess irrigation water infiltrates into shallow aquifers. Hence, in order to understand the impact of the landuse on the groundwater system the study has been aimed to understand the process by adopting geophysical, geochemical and microbial analysis of groundwater samples. The study has been conducted in Chidambaram taluk, with a total area of 92.51Sq.km. A total of 39 groundwater samples were collected for the analysis of major cation and anion along with the microbial analysis, like Total Coliform, Total Viable Counts, Fecal coliforms, Vibrio cholera and Total Streptococci. The geochemical studies reveal that there is no correlation between these parameters and the microbial population. The migration of the water from the elevated regions (urban region) is witnessed and the concentration of the microbial population is higher in these regions except in the southern region which has impermeable clay and this arrest the movement of water.

Abstract

The livelihood security of hill people is closely associated with hydrology of the region. The Himalayas possesses one of the largest reserve resources of freshwater in the form of snow and ice, thereby supporting livelihoods of millions of people. The physiographic constraints of the region restrict irrigation development with the result that, majority of cultivated area remains rainfed. Climate change is also a serious issue concerning hill economy. Its impact on livelihood security is dictated, among other things, through change in hydrology. In addition to highlighting hydrological issues, suggestions are offered on how to deal with water related issues to livelihood enlargement and protection.

Abstract

The paper presents findings of a field study to determine the agricultural and socio-economic impact of climate change on the mountain farmers’ apple economy. The study investigates the positive and negative effects of climate change on mountain farmers’ economy. It revealed how mountain farmers in a valley were forced to abandon apple farming which destroyed their farm economy and at the same time how same climate change brought new economic opportunities. The study findings also indicate that opportunities brought by climate change seem to have a time scale. This research attempts to piece together evidence and aims to enhance our understanding of climate change impacts as observed by farming communities at very local levels. The growing threat of global warming and its effects and prevailing obscurities about the future of agriculture are all addressed in this investigation.

Composting is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and soil conditioner. It is a natural process of decomposition and recycling of organic material into humus rich soil amendment.

At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of organic material sprinkled with water which break down to humus after a period of weeks or months. However, modern bio composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air and carbon and nitrogen rich (in proper C:N ratio) materials.

All farmed animals are transported at some stage in their lives, sometimes to places where food is more readily available, sometimes to a different owner or a different place of keeping and sometimes to slaughter. The handling, loading, transporting and unloading of animals can have very substantial effects on their welfare. Wherever   poor welfare associated with the transport of animals is prevented, there is an immediate financial advantage because mortality rates and carcass downgrading are reduced. The attitude towards animals has major consequences on animal welfare during transportation. Therefore, laws and codes of practice can also have significant effects on animal welfare during transport. In order to produce guidelines that can be used to prevent or minimise poor welfare in animals during transport, it is necessary to be aware of the biological functioning of the animals concerned and the attitudes and actions of the people involved in the handling and transport procedures.

Theory
    ·    Father of sociology: Auguste Comte 
    ·    The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875).
    ·    Sociology word comes from two roots i.e.     
        Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companion         
        Greek word ‘logos’ meaning speech or reasoning.
    ·    Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions, social structure and functions.

Plantation crops are high-value commercial crops of greater economic importance which play a pivotal role in the world economy. These include coconut, arecanut, tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, oil palm, cashew. In this chapter only Cashew and Rubber are dealt with since the other plantation crops have been dealt in the earlier chapters.

INTRODUCTION

Drying or dehydration is defined as the removal of moisture from its initial level to a level which renders food materials safe for subsequent storage. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer operation in which heat is supplied externally to evaporate moisture and air is forced through the bed to carry away the moisture. Drying is the oldest technique to preserve food materials. Advantages of drying include reduction in water activity, enhancement of shelf life, maintenance of flavor and nutritive value, and reduction in packaging and transportation costs. When the water activity of the dried product is reduced to below 0.6, most microorganisms do not grow and the rates of other deteriorative reactions are substantially reduced.

INTRODUCTION

Food being the basic need of all humans and other living organisms, the production and processing of food is a continuous activity with several new procedures and technologies adoption; thereby the quality of food needs an emphasis which also protects the consumers by providing safe and suitable food. The contaminated foods, food borne illness outbreaks though at times referred to poor consumer handling, commitment for provision of safe food to consumers is also a Governments concern. In the recent years, food safety measures through Food Safety programmes and increase in awareness are being followed. The food production in our country is the most promising sector which is the cause for white revolution and green revolution. India ranks first in the world in production of cereals and milk and second largest producers of fruits and vegetables. India stands second in inland fish production. It is second largest exporter of rice and so on. Food processing sector has a great potential which covers a wide spectrum of products encompassing agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries. But the growth of food processing industries in our country is rather slow. However, to encourage, the government is providing lot of incentives in the recent years.

MAC : It stands for modified atmospheric coating.

Macaroni : Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes.

Macaroni wheat : It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon : A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut.

Mace : An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg.