eChapters

Principle of construction of poster making
A poster is to be bold in design, simple to understand and attractive in colour. Poster is displayed in a public place with the purpose of creating awareness amongst the people. A poster is generally seen from a distance and the person glancing at to get first idea about it. Construction of poster making should be based on following components.
1. Pictures 2. Words 3. Space 4. Colors 5. Layout

a) Picture or illustration
1. Picture should be drawn in such a way that produce message clearly.

1. INTRODUCTION

Harvesting is the process of gathering the crops from the fields at maturity. The harvesting of a commodity means the end of the growing season for a particular crop. Harvesting is the most labour-intensive activity of the growing season. Harvesting in general includes an immediate post-harvest handling, the actions taken immediately after removing the crop are pre-cooling, sorting, cleaning, packaging and up to the point of on-farm processing or shipping to the wholesaler or consumer.

Harvest timing is a critical decision that balances the likely weather conditions with the degree of crop maturity. Weather conditions such as frost, rain and unseasonably warm or cold periods can affect yield and quality. These conditions can be avoided by harvesting the commodities earlier than the harvest date, but this may result in poor yield and quality. On the other hand, delayed harvesting also results in a better yield, but increases the risk of weather problems. Thus, proper harvesting timings of horticultural commodities often play an important role.

Assessment of harvesting time is a critical time for growers of fruit and vegetables to decide the accurate period of crop harvesting. Fresh produce is normally ready for harvest when it has developed to the ideal condition for consumption and the condition is usually referred to as harvest maturity. Harvest maturity thus refers to the time when the “fruit” is ready to harvest and the time required to reach market. The harvesting should be done earlier than its ideal maturity for proper marketing.

Most growers decide harvesting time for different commodities by looking and sampling. Judgments are based on colour, size and shape (Sight); texture, hardness or softness (Touch); odour/aroma (Smell); sweetness, sourness, bitterness (Taste) etc. Experience is the best guide for this kind of assessment. Harvest maturity can readily be observed in some fruit crops but it can be more difficult in case of some fruits like avocados remain unripe off the tree after maturity.

DNA fragment to be used as a probe should be purified by gel electrophoresis. The band can be located after staining with ethidium bromide and electroeluted.

The in vitro radioactive labeling of DNA fragment is accomplished by the incorporation of a radioactive nucleotide during strand synthesis with Klenow enzyme (large subunit of DNA polymerase-I).

Enterobacteria phage ? is a bacterial virus, or bacteriophage, that infects the bacterial species Escherichia coli (E.coli). It was discovered by Esther Lederberg in 1950. The wild type of this virus has a temperate life cycle that allows it to either reside within the genome of its host through lysogeny or enter into a lytic phase, during which it kills and lyses the cell to produce offspring. Lambda strains, mutated at specific sites, are unable to lysogenize cells; instead, they grow and enter the lytic cycle after superinfecting an already lysogenized cell.

Materials Required

Fruit juice/ pulp, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, bottling and sealing facilities, hand refractometer, homogenizer etc.  

Procedure

    1.    Extract the juice as discussed in previous exercise.
    2.    Filter the fresh or preserved juice through muslin cloth.
    3.    Calculate the quantities of juice, sugar, water, acid (if required), preservatives, colour, essence etc. required for preparation of a known quantity of                      squash as per FPO specifications.
    4.    Prepare the beverage as directed by instructor
    5.    Pack the beverage in bottles 
    6.    Seal the bottles and label them
    7.    Take out one of the bottles and measure its TSS and titratable acidity.

In the realm of cell culture, the quality and composition of the growth media and reagents play a pivotal role in growth and sustaining cells in vitro. The preparation of these essential components requires precision, attention to detail, and adherence to the strict protocols to ensure optimal cellular growth, viability, and experimental reproducibility. This introduction serves as a foundational overview of the critical aspects involved in the preparation of media and reagents for cell culture experiments. Furthermore, the preparation of media and reagents for cell culture necessitates adherence to stringent quality control measures to ensure consistency and reproducibility across experiments. Validation of media batches, sterility testing, and periodic quality assessments are essential practic

When we are having two or more than two feed ingredients and by using them we have to prepare a mixture of desired nutrient composition then we will require to use Pearson’s square method. Use of pearson’s square is a simple procedure that allows us to mix two feed stuffs with different nutrients concentrations and come up with a mixture of the desired total concentration. For the pearson’s square to work, the desired diet’ nutrient concentration must be between the nutrient concentrations of the two feed stuffs. Suppose we have a protein source such as ground nut cake (GNC) with 40.9% crude protein (CP) and maize with 8.8% CP, and we need a mixture of the two that will have 18% CP. AS shown in the illustration, we compare the CP percentage of each feed on the left with the desired percentage in the middle of the square. The lesser value is subtracted from the greater value and the answer, in parts of a mixture rather then in percentage, is recorded diagonally, but read horizontally.

Aim

To prepare a contour map by direct method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Theory

For locating a point on the ground on a contour, its position and elevation in a horizontal plane should be known. In direct method, the contours to be plotted are located on the ground with a level by making various points on each contour, and these points are surveyed and plotted on plan. This method is more accurate but slow and tedious, and is suitable for contouring small areas where great accuracy is required. For locating the points of the same elevation, the instrument is set in such a commanding position from where maximum number of points can be covered. The bench mark is established near the site of survey. The height of the instrument (H.I) is determined after taking a back sight (B.S) on the established bench mark.

36.1. Aim

To prepare cordial from lemon and lime.

36.2. Theory

Cordial is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit beverage from which pulp has been removed completely. It contains at least 25% fruit juice, 30% total soluble solids (TSS), 1.5% acid and 350 ppm sulphur dioxide. Lemon and lime juice cordials are the commercial products.

36.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Lemon and lime are used for making cordial.

Procedure

1.Peeled Potato slices are cooked in 500 ml of water by the time till they are easily penetrated by a glass rod.

2.Filtered with the help of muslin cloth.

3.Agar-agar is melted in another 500 ml of water.

4.Potato extract is added to the melted agar.

5.Dextrose is added in this mixture and stir well with the help of glass rod.

6.Make the volume to 1000 ml, by adding required water.

7.Medium is sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lbs pressure for 20 minutes at temperature of 121.6^oC.

A Detailed Project Report (DPR) is a vital document that outlines every aspect of a proposed project, serving as a strategic guide for all stakeholders involved. It typically covers project goals, timelines, budget estimates, resource planning, and risk evaluation. The preparation of a DPR usually begins after completing the initial planning and design stages and often follows a feasibility study to assess the project’s viability.
DETAILED PROJECT REPORT (DPR): MEANING AND IMPORTANCE
Essentially, the DPR serves as a final and elaborate blueprint of the project, laying out the specific resources, tasks, and methodologies required for successful execution. It clearly defines roles, responsibilities, and safety protocols to be followed during implementation.
Key factors determining project success include:
• Timely completion of the project
• Meeting client expectations through high-quality outcomes
• Staying within the approved budget despite cost escalations
The objective of a DPR is to translate a business investment idea into a practical, revenue-generating project. It presents a realistic and actionable plan for implementation, addressing potential risks and suggesting mitigation strategies. A well-crafted DPR ensures smooth execution and operational efficiency, making it a crucial document for project approval and success.
CONTENTS OF A DETAILED PROJECT REPORT
A Detailed Project Report (DPR) serves as a critical foundation for turning a project concept into a functional and successful venture. It should include the following key elements:

Introduction

For agricultural applications as well as for research work, often we need to prepare solutions of different agrochemicals of varying strength, as per the requirements. Agrochemicals are used to help crop plants grow, produce, and protect them from biotic/abiotic stresses. Many of the agrochemicals (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, etc.) are used to protect the crop from insect pests and diseases. However, some of them (fertilizers and soil conditioners) are used to augment crop yield. While in the previous chapter (Chapter 8) we discussed about preparation of laboratory solutions, in this chapter we will briefly discuss about the preparation of different agrochemicals.

Agrochemical/agrichemical is a generalized term used for the chemicals applied in agriculture. In general, it also includes the feed-supplements used in f isheries and animal husbandry.

Agrochemicals

Fertilizers

Fertilizers are used to augment growth of crop plants and to mitigate nutrient deficiency in the soil. Fertilisers can be organic (containing natural substances, prepared through natural processes) and inorganic fertilisers (synthetic fertilizers, manufactured artificially using chemical processes using natural deposits, by chemical alterations).

Soil Conditioners

Soil conditioners include manure, livestock and leaf compost, peat that help making the soil in good condition. They are laid on the top soil and then mixed properly. They not only increase nutrient contents in the soil but also improve aeration and water holding capacity.

INTRODUCTION
Depending on the product being made, different methods are used to prepare fruit-based products, including smoothies, jams, sauces, dried fruits, fruit preserves, and fruit juices. Specialized equipment is usually needed for each process in order to attain the required consistency and quality. Here is a summary of how various fruit-based products are made and an introduction to the standard tools used in their production.
SQUASH
This kind of fruit beverage has 40–50% commercially available total soluble solids and at least 25% fruit juice or pulp. Approximately 1.0 per cent acid and 350 ppm sulfur dioxide or 600 ppm sodium benzoate are also present. To serve, it is diluted. Commercial squash is made with mango, orange, and pineapple. Another way to make it is to use potassium metabisulphite (KMS) as a preservative for lemon, bael, papaya, etc., or sodium benzoate as a preservative for jamun, passion fruit, peach, plum, raspberry, strawberry, grapefruit, etc.
In India, people want cold beverages almost all year round. Acid squashes hold a significant position among these fruit juices. Due to their abundance of vital vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, these are highly well-liked. Squash is a fruit beverage that has at least 25% fruit juice or pulp and at least 40% total soluble solids (sugar). Additionally, it includes 1-2 percent edible acid. Since squash has a relatively low sugar content, it should be preserved by adding an approved chemical preservative, such as sodium or potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate, along with flavour and colour. Fruits like mango, orange, pineapple, litchi, lemon, and so on can be used to make squash.

INTRODUCTION
The process of preparing vegetable-based products involves several essential steps, such as cleaning, chopping, cooking, and adding seasoning. Initially, vegetables are thoroughly washed to eliminate dirt and chemicals. Depending on the specific product, vegetables are then either peeled or chopped. Some vegetables undergo blanching to maintain their color and texture before they are frozen or subjected to additional processing. For products like vegetable soups, stews, or purees, the vegetables are simmered in water or broth to enhance their flavors.
The preparation process is supported by a range of equipment, including blenders for pureeing, steamers for gentle cooking, and slicers to ensure uniform cuts. Pressure cookers are used to speed up cooking times for items like stews, while dehydrators are employed to produce vegetable chips or dried snacks. Grinders and mills are used to create pastes or powders from vegetables. It is crucial that all equipment is handled carefully to ensure it operates effectively and safely, which is necessary for achieving the highest product quality. Regular maintenance of the equipment is vital for achieving consistent and reliable results.
VALUE ADDITION CONCEPT
Value addition is a strategic approach in post-harvest management aimed at enhancing the quality, market value, and economic potential of agricultural products such as fruits and vegetables. This process focuses on transforming raw produce into value-added products that are more desirable and useful for consumers and markets. It plays a critical role in modern agriculture, food processing, and marketing. Let’s take a closer look at the concept of value addition in post-harvest management:
• Product Diversification: Value addition involves creating a variety of products from raw fruits and vegetables. For example, fresh fruits can be turned into juices

This practical assignment is conceptualized and designed for preparation of enterprise business plan and provides students the preliminary information on developing a business plan

PURPOSE

 To equip students with the preliminary knowledge on how to develop a business plan for an enterprise.

 To acquaint the students with the important aspects of a business plan which are essential for developing and running an enterprise successfully.

Introduction

Introduction to Feasibility Reports

A feasibility report is a detailed analysis of the viability, sustainability, and profitability of a proposed project. It is crucial for decision-making and project planning, particularly in the dairy industry where multiple variables affect the outcomes.

Objectives of Feasibility Reports • Assess economic viability.

• Analyse technical requirements.

• Evaluate operational sustainability.

• Provide a roadmap for project implementation.

• Decision-Making Tool: Helps stakeholders decide whether to proceed with a project. Hence, minimize risks through identification of potential obstacles and informed decision-making.

• Resource Optimization: Ensures efficient use of resources like time, money, and labour.

• Stakeholder Communication: Provides a structured overview of the project’s potential.

1. Introduction

The increasing size and activities of humans have mounted severe pressure on the survival of other life forms on the earth. This is a matter of great concern for the humanity. Therefore, a critical study to inventory all plant species has become very essential and urgent before they are lost or become extinct. In the face of extinction of many of these species, we need to learn as much about them as quickly as possible. In the recent years there has been a great concern for biological diversity and conservation of biological resources. Although much emphasis has been given to the ways and means for inventories (Flora) of biological diversity, there is also need for more in depth studies that deal with basic relationship of species. Monographic, revisionary and systematic studies that provide basic descriptive information about organisms and their relationship are required to document the information and knowledge about the plant wealth of a country. This chapter is to highlights the usefulness of the Flora and revisionary studies, and provides the relevant information to the beginners and the budding plant taxonomists about the preparation of an ‘Ideal Flora’ and ‘Creative Revision’ to meet the requirement of the present time.

Background
During a fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB), a small amount of mammary tissue fluid is removed using a fine needle by applying suction, and cells present therein are identified in a thin smear. FNAB has been the most sensitive, quick, and precise tool for the differential diagnosis of malignancy. However, further research is required into the possibility of malignancy in dogs based on cytological evidence and candidate gene expression analysis. This is a noninvasive cancer detection technique and is often used in clinics.
Materials and Reagents Required
1. Fixative- cold acetone, ethanol, or aldehyde-based fixative (10% neutral buffered formalin/ NBF or paraformaldehyde).
2. Ethanol – 70%, 90% and 100%
3. Washing buffer (phosphate buffer saline)- PBS
4. Clean glass slides – preferably positively charged
5. 22-gauge needle fitted with 2 ml syringe
Procedures
Prepare for a dog having a mammary tumor
• Clean the site of the mammary tumor with alcohol and allow it to dry.
• Keep slides ready, clean, and dry.

Materials Required

Fruits or fruit pulp, steel pans, weighing balance, refractometer, sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid, citric acid etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Extract fruit pulp as told in earlier exercises. 
    2.    Take a known quantity of freshly extracted or preserved pulp.
    3.    Weigh sugar (about half the weigh of pulp).
    4.    Heat pulp and sugar over a gas flame.
    5.    Add spices, chillies, salt, citric acid (if required) etc. and cook
    6.    Record the TSS to judge the end point. It should be more than 50o Brix.
    7.    Add measured quantities of acetic acid and sodium benzoate at the end.
    8.    Cool and pack in pre-washed and sterilized glass jars
    9.    Label and store.

42.1. Aim

To conduct practical on preparation of chutney from different fruits.

42.2. Theory

Fruit chutney is made in the same way as jam except that the spices, salt and vinegar or acetic acid is also added. In comparison to jam, chutney contains less total soluble solids. The product shall be of good quality with palatable and appetizing taste. As per FSSAI specifications, the chutney shall contain minimum of 40% fruit (w/w) in the final product with total soluble solids not less than 50%. The acidity in the final product shall not be more than 2 percent with ash content not exceeding 5 percent. Mixed fruit chutney is commercially made by using different fruits in appropriate combinations.

42.3. Raw material, ingredients, equipments and utensils required

1. Stainless steel peeling/cutting knives, pulper for extraction of pulp.

2. Utensils for cooking and mixing, ladle, glass jars, sterilization tank, diesel or LPG stove/bhatti etc

Fruit chutney is a product made in the same way as jam except that spices, salt, and acid (vinegar) in addition are added. The total soluble solids in chutney are] also less than that of jam. The product shall be of good quality with a palatable and appetizing taste. As per Food Safety and Standards Regulations, chutney\ shall contain a minimum of 40% fruit (w/w) in the final product with total soluble solids not less than 50%. The acidity in the final product shall not be more than 2% with ash content not exceeding 5%. However, for vegetablebased chutney as well as hot & sour (spicy) chutney, the TSS shall not be less than 25%.
Recipe: The generalized recipe for the preparation of chutney from different fruits is as under:

Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without the addition of water, straining the extract, and mixing the clear extract with sugar followed by cooking the mixture to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff, and have an original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape when removed from the mould. As per FSSAI specification, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product (jelly and marmalade) shall not be less than 45 and 65 per cent (w/w) respectively. Jelly is made from fruit extract while jam is made from fruit pulp, therefore, jelly in contrast to jam is considered to be transparent and clear in appearance. Guava jelly is the most common commercial product.
Jellies: In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent which help in making the gel. Since, pectin is present in the cell walls of fruits as such fruit peel, whole or fruit slices along with a small quantity of water are gently boiled to extract the maximum proportion of pectin solution in the water extract. This water extract is used for the preparation of jelly.

Materials Required

Fruits juice, enzymes (pectinase, cellulase, pectinase CCM etc.), filter press, buchner filter apparatus, water bath, filter paper pulp, buchhi type rotary vacuum evaporator, freeze concentrator, membrane concentrator (whichever available), vacuum grease.

Procedure

    1.    Extract the juice as discussed in earlier exercises. Take a known quantity of juice in a conical flask.
    2.    Add enzymes i.e. pectinase @ 0.2% to the juice and keep in a water bath at temperature of 40-50ºC for 2 hrs.
    3.    Shake the flasks occasionally for uniform mixing of enzyme all throughout the flask during the enzymatic treatment.
    4.    Leave the flasks undisturbed for 10-12 hrs for allowing the insoluble solids to settle at the bottom of the flask.
    5.    Siphon the clear juice from the top of the flask.
    6.    Pass this siphoned juice through filter press or through a 0.4-0.5 cm thick bed of filter paper pulp in a Buchner filter apparatus or filter press.
    7.    Record the volume of the clarified juice obtained. Calculate the wastage.
    8.    Concentrate the juice in rotary vacuum evaporator at 50+2ºC temperature and at 28-30” Hg vacuum to a TSS of about 50 to 70º Brix. Record the exact TSS.
    9.    Record the volume of condensate obtained in the round bottom flask of the buchhi apparatus.
    10.    Calculate the folds of concentration

38.1. Aim

To prepare nectar from different fruit pulp/juice.

38.2. Theory

Fruit nectar is also a RTS drink but it contains not less than 150Brix TSS and not less than 20% fruit juice or pulp. It is preserved only by heat processing as such no preservative is allowed in fruit nectars. Mango nectar, guava nectar etc. are the commercial products in this category.

38.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Mango, guava, and pineapple nectars are commercially available in the market. However the nectar can also be prepared from a number of other fruits like jamun, aonla, apricot, papaya, plum and bael etc.

Fruit syrup is a beverage that contains at least 25% fruit juice/pulp, 65% total  soluble solids and acidity ranging between 1.2 -1.5%. It is preserved by using
350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid. Fruit syrup is diluted before serving. Syrup can be made from the juice/pulp of jamun, ginger, lemon, phalsa, rose extract, bael, pomegranate, and brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) leaves/root extract, etc. Besides, a syrup/sharbat containing a minimum of 10 per cent of dry fruits is also regarded as fruit syrup.
Recipe: The generalized recipe for the preparation of syrups from different fruits is as under:

Materials Required

Apple (or any local fruit), fruit mill, hydraulic press, weighing balance, Refractometer/sugar pectinol, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture, Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) etc.

Procedure

    1.    Take a known quantity of apple (or any other fruit) say 20 Kg
    2.    Extract the juice as discussed in earlier exercises.
    3.    Add about 200 ppm of kms.
    4.    Add sugar syrup to increase the TSS to about 20 – 24ºBrix.
    5.    To about 10 Kg of juice diammonium hydrogen phosphate (10 g) and pectinol (20-25 g are added).
    6.    Take about 500 ml of this mixture in a conical flask and add pure Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture @ 1 % and plug the neck with cotton. Keep at 22-24ºC to complete the fermentation within one day and yeast culture is ready.
    7.    Add this culture to about 10 Kg of must for further fermentation (i.e. culture is added @ 5% therefore 500 g is added to 10 Kg must).
    8.    Record the TSS of the must before fermentation.
    9.    Keep must for fermentation in big jars (narrow mouth) filled to about 75 % of their volume. Close the mouth of jars or bottles with cotton plug.
    10.    Allow fermentation to take place at 22-24ºC for about 10–15 days.
    11.    When no more bubbles are coming out of the jars, fermentation is complete. At this stage the TSS reaches about 7º Brix.
    12.    Siphon the wine. Add filter aids if wine is not clear.
    13.    Blend the wine with sweetening agents if required.
    14.    Fill in beer bottles by keeping a head space of about 2.5 cm followed by crown corking them.
    15.    Pasteurize the bottles by keeping at 62.5ºC for 20 min.

Preparation of Bordeaux mixture

Materials: Iron, beaker, copper sulphate, lime, weighing balance, plastic container, wooden stick and muslin cloth.

Bordeaux mixture derives its name from the place of its discovery, Bordeaux, France.

Ingredients required for the preparation of 100 litre of 1 percent elicoid mixture are:

1.Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) : 1 kg

2.Quick lime (unslaked) : 1 kg

3.Water 100 litres

Method

•Dissolve 1kg powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of water in a mudpot or plastic bucket.

•In another 50 litres of water dissolve 1kg of quicklime.

•Stir thoroughly with the help of wooden stick.

•Put a filter cloth on the mouth of 3^rd container.

•Pour the contents of both the containers in a 3^rd container simultaneously and stir it thoroughly.

•Make up the desire volume (ie. 100 litres).

•Test the mixture before use for the presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plant.

INTRODUCTION
The production of products from grains, pulses, and oilseeds entails a series of processes aimed at converting raw agricultural materials into products that are ready for use or consumption. These processes typically take place in dedicated facilities like grain mills, pulse processing units, and oilseed crushing plants, where various types of equipment are employed at different stages of production. Below is an introduction to the main processes and an overview of the equipment commonly used for these operations.
The preparation of grain, pulse, and oilseed-based products plays a vital role in transforming raw agricultural produce into consumable goods, contributing significantly to food security and nutrition. These products are integral to the daily diets of people around the world, and the processes involved in their production are designed to enhance quality, shelf life, and marketability. The procedures that go into preparing these products vary depending on the type of raw material, but all involve a series of specialized steps that are typically carried out in dedicated processing facilities.Grain mills, pulse processing units, and oilseed crushing plants are the primary settings where these transformations take place. Each of these facilities is equipped with specific machinery to perform tasks such as cleaning, milling, sorting, and packaging, with the aim of creating high-quality end products that are ready for distribution. The operation of these different pieces of equipment is crucial for ensuring consistency in quality, efficiency in production, and minimal wastage.
The processing of grains, pulses, and oilseeds involves several stages, such as cleaning to remove impurities, grinding or crushing to break down the raw materials, and packaging for storage or shipment. Each stage requires different equipment, such as mills for grains, crushers for oilseeds, and sorting machines for pulses. Understanding the operation of these machines is essential for anyone

Pharmaceutical and chemical industries depend largely on toxicological evaluations to provide information regarding safety of their commercial products. Toxicologists so far have been relying on animal studies to investigate potentially beneficial or harmful effects of drugs and chemicals prior to testing them in humans. Traditionally, the safety assessment process during drug development has been based on screening indiscriminately a plethora of new chemical entities (NCEs) using a large number of animals as testing models in order to identify new therapeutic agents with the expectation that one or a few of these NCEs have some competitive advantages over the existing therapeutic agents. That is why they are more efficacious, bioavailable, selective, and safer. This approach is costly, time-consuming, and requires large quantities of test material. Currently, it takes about 10-12 years and a huge expenditure for a drug to move from research laboratory to patent. Thus alternative cell culture models in the early phases of the drug discovery process can save time and money both by eliminating least beneficial NCEs.

Preparation of Reagents

Culture media

For the culture of hepatocytes medium M199 (GibcoBRL, USA) is used. One pouch of the dry media is dissolved in 1 liter of filtered distil water. The pH of the media is adjusted by adding 0.4% sodium bicarbonate to be around 7.4. The media is than sterilized by filtration through seitz filter (0.22 mm) and stored in 50 ml sterilized conical flasks.

Take 1 g phenolpathalin powder in a 100 ml volumetric flask. Then add volume up to 100 ml by ethanol (Ethyl alcohol).

Materials Required

Fruit pulp, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, glass jars (500 ml capacity), jar closures, hand refractometer, steel pan, ladle etc.

Procedure

    1.    Select sound and fresh fruits, free from any blemishes. Generally a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits should be taken as the ripe fruits impart good flavour and the unripe fruits are rich in pectin, required for a good set.

    2.    Wash the fruits thoroughly. Cut into 4-8 pieces depending upon the fruit and size
    3.    Boil the fruit pieces for about 20-25 min in boiling water and pass through pulper to get a good pulp.
    4.    Weigh known quantity of fresh or preserved pulp and add about equal quantity of sugar (preferably in 45:55 ratio)
    5.    Cook the mixture on gas flame by occasional stirring. 
    6.    When the mixture becomes thick, perform sheet test.
    7.    Citric acid is added generally towards the end of cooking. Addition of all the acid in the beginning may result in stickiness and poor set. 
    8.    Remove from the flame when the mixture gives a clear sheet
    9.    Flavours, colours etc may also be added towards the end of boiling. 
    10.    Fill the jam in glass jars (preferably pre-warmed in hot air).
    11.    Close the jars with lug caps and allow to cool overnight.
    12.    Label and store in a cool place.

39.1. Aim

To prepare Jam from different fruits.

39.2. Theory

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. For preparation of jam not less than 45 parts of fruits are used for every 55 parts of sugar. According to FSSAI specifications, minimum quantity of soluble solids in the prepared jam shall not be less than 65% (w/w). The jam prepared by using two or more fruit pulps, is called as mixed fruit jam. Approved fruit colour and flavour can also be added into the jam when declared on the label.

39.3. Raw material, ingredients and utensils required

1. Fruits like Apple, apricot, mango, plum, peach, guava, pineapple, pear and kiwifruit etc either singly or in combination (mixed jam).

40.1. Aim

To prepare jelly from guava fruits.

40.2. Theory

Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without addition of water, straining the extract and cooking the clear extract with sugar to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and having original flavour of the fruit. It should be attractive in colour and should keep its shape. In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent. As per FSSAI specifications, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in the final product shall not be less than 45 and 65 percent (w/w) respectively. Guava jelly is the commercial product available in the market however jelly can be prepared from sour apple, karonda, jamun, loquat etc.

Materials Required

Fruit extract, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, glass jars (500 ml capacity), jar closures, hand refractometer, steel pan, ladle etc.

Procedure for Jelly

    1.    Select sound and fresh fruits, free from any blemishes. Generally a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits shouldbe taken as the ripe fruits impart good flavour and the unripe fruits are rich in pectin, required for a good set.
    2.    Wash the fruits thoroughly. Cut into 4-8 pieces depending upon the fruit and size
    3.    Boil the fruit pieces in water (about ½ to an equal weight of fruits for fruits like apple and 2-3 times the weight of sliced fruits in case of citrus fruits) for about 30 min. with occasional stirring. Strain the boiled mixture through coarse muslin cloth to get a clear pectin extract
    4.    A second extract may also be taken by boiling the same mass again and straining.
    5.    Add sugar (usually 3/4th to one part of the extract or in 45:55 ratio) to the pectin extract and boil in a stainless steel pan. Add required quantities of acid towards the end of boiling.
    6.    Remove the scum rising on the top of boiling mass occasionally.
    7.    To avoid charring, occasional stirring is also done.
    8.    To avoid destruction of pectin the cooking should be completed fast
    9.    Determine the end point of jelly as detailed ahead.
    10.    Fill in hot dry glass jars and cool rapidly
    11.    Pour a thin layer of hot molten paraffin wax seal to avoid moulding.   
    12.    Label and store in a cool place.

4.1 Introduction
The yield of the mulberry crop is a significant component in determining productivity and consequently, profitability in sericulture. The two most crucial goals—increasing cocoon output per hectare and lowering production costs—will be achieved through optimizing mulberry leaf yield per unit area. Therefore, ensuring that he receives the highest leaf yield possible from his mulberry crop ought to be the main goal of every sericulturist. Furthermore,
it should be understood that every action made to increase leaf production also serves to enhance leaf quality, so securing insurance against losses to the cocoon crop later on in the silkworm raising process.
4.2 Soil and Climate
Except for extremely steep terrain, mulberry may be grown practically on any type of terrain. However, when it is grown on either level ground or gently sloping or undulating terrain, good growths are obtained. More sloping or steep terrain calls for careful consideration of appropriate soil conservation techniques including bench teracing, contour planting and contour drainage. Although mulberry thrives in a variety of soil types, loamy to clayey loamsoils are ideal for growth. Mulberry plants can withstand somewhat acidic soil conditions. However, if the pH of the soil is too low, lime or dolomite should be applied as a necessary corrective measure. When it comes to
alkaline soil Gypsum application in the soil is the best option for adjusting the soil’s alkalinity. Given that mulberries have deep roots, the soil should be sufficiently deep—up to two feet, at the very least. Mulberries grow well up to an elevation of around 4,000 feet after which their growth will be slowed by the lower temperatures. 

Materials Required

Lime fruits, green chillies, ginger salt (common), stainless steel pans, kinives, weighing balance, spices etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Select sound and mature fruits of lime, mature but green chillies having good size and ginger rhizomes.
    2.    Wash the lime fruits, ginger and chillies properly in running cold water.
    3.    Cut the lime fruits into pieces / halves. 
    4.    Remove the stalks of the chillies and cut into longitudinal slices. Peel ginger and cut into long thin slices.
    5.    Put the lime pieces, chilli and ginger slices in a wide mouthed pre-sterilized glass jar 
    6.    Add common salt @ 250g / Kg of material.
    7.    Squeeze some of the juice over the slices
    8.    Stir the mass well mixing thoroughly
    9.    In case the juice does not cover the material completely, add pre-boiled and cooled 5% solution of citric acid.
    10.    Keep the jar in Sun for about a week with occasional shaking of the material.
    11.    When the lime pieces start turning light brown, the pickle is ready for consumption.

Techno economic feasibility of livestock enterprises under different conditions

The technical and economic feasibility part examines the possible technical and economic aspects of a proposed livestock project. In this chapter we would be studying techno economic feasibilities of various livestock based enterprise

1. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Dairy unit

2. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Goat Farm

3. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Pig Farm

4. Technical and Economic Feasibility of a Feed unit

41.1. Aim

To prepare marmalade from citrus fruits.

41.2. Theory

Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices/shreds of peel are suspended. The marmalades are prepared generally from citrus fruits like orange and lemon. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades are kept slightly higher than that for jellies. They shall contain minimum of 45% fruit and 65% total soluble solids.

41.3. Raw material, ingredients, machinery required

1. Orange and lemon like citrus fruits are used for making marmalade.

2. Stainless steel knives, utensils for cooking and mixing, muslin cloth, glass jars, sterilization tank, gas bhatti etc.

Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices of peel are suspended. The marmalades are prepared generally from citrus fruits like orange and lemon. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades should be kept slightly higher  than that for jellies. Citrus marmalades are of two types: i) Sweet marmalade and ii) Bitter marmalade.
Procedure
Preparation of fruit extract: After washing the fruit, remove the outer yellow flavedo portion of the peel of citrus fruits thinly which contains colouring matter and volatile oils, whereas the inner white albedo portion contains pectin. The thin yellow peel is cut into fine shreds with a knife, or on a shredding machine, and the shreds are boiled and drained to remove the bitterness. The sliced or crushed fruit is boiled gently by simmering with 2 or 3 times its weight of water to extract the pectin. While it is being boiled, a teaspoonful of the clear extract is taken from the pan and tested with alcohol for its pectin content. The process usually takes 30 to 45 minutes.

Microorganisms, being ubiquitous, are found in soil, air, water, food, sewage, on body surfaces as well as on degrading and decomposing substances. Their survival and continued growth mostly depend on an adequate supply of nutrients and favourable growth environments. The culture media (nutrients) consisting of chemicals support the growth of microorganisms in a given condition. They are devised in such a way that the organism should get all the nutritional requirements. These are usually prepared in laboratory by weighing and dispensing the individual ingredients. Generally, the common media contain both inorganic and organic nutrients; however, for the cultivation of large number of microorganisms, specialized media are required.

Basically the culture media are of three types: (1) Natural, (2) Semi synthetic and (3) Synthetic.

Introduction

Different types of culture media are used for culturing microbes and plant tissues. Preparing as well as sterilizing them properly following appropriate method with safety for the desired purpose are important parts of research work. In this chapter, we will discuss briefly about different types of media, their composition, preparation and sterilization in laboratory for microbial or plant tissue culture.

Culture Medium

Ingredients mixed to prepare solid, liquid or semi-solid substance to support the growth of microorganism or plant tissue in vitro (outside the body) is called culture medium. Frequently, it becomes important to grow microorganism or plant/animal tissue in vitro for any or all of the following purposes:

• To study characteristic features or properties of microorganisms.

• To identify the causal organism(s) of infection in a clinical sample, so that appropriate remedy can be determined.

• To culture/multiply microorganism or plant/animal tissues in vitro for research or commercial purposes.

• To prepare/produce biological molecules, vaccines, antigens, proteins, metabolites, etc. in vitro for research or industrial purposes.

Ingredients; milk fat (cream)-12%, non-fat milk solids (skim milk powder)-11%, sugar-15%, stabilizer-0.2%, emulsifier-0.2%, flavors-a pinch Basic ice cream preparation: 1. Mix the ingredients 2. Pasteurization 3. Homogenization 4. Ageing (allowing to standby 24 hours at 4.440C) 5. Freezing (the mix is frozen at 5.5560c) 6. The freezing must be quick in order to prevent formation of large crystals. The ice cream is semi solid at this temperature. 7. The ice cream is finally frozen to a hard mass at about -30C.

Abstract

Pomegranates are usually consumed as fresh fruit, with only a limited quantity being processed into products like juice, syrup, beverages, wine, confectionary and anardana. The special structure of fruit is one of main factors which limit its industrial processing. Knowing the importance of health benefits of pomegranate and all related aspects, the present study was carried out in order to utilize pomegranate fruit for preparation of pomegranate mouth freshener. Arils of two cultivars like Ganesh and Araktaweredried by two drying methods viz., sun drying (SD) and cabinet drying (CD).Nutritive and palatable mouth freshener was prepared from anardana of two different cultivars as Ganesh (G) and Arakta (A). Production cost of 100g pomegranate mouth freshener is about Rs.55/. It was noticed that moisture content, acidity and ascorbic acid content decreased at the end of storage.

Introduction

The preservation of animal specimens for museums is a critical practice in natural history, enabling education, research, and conservation awareness. Traditionally, specimens are often sourced from zoological facilities or specific conservation programs. However, the innovative use of fallen animals—animals that have died of natural causes or accidents—presents a sustainable and ethical method of specimen preparation. India has large livestock population. As per 20th livestock census in the country, livestock sector of India comprised of 303 million bovines (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak), 74.26 million sheep, 148.88 million goats, 9.06 million pigs and about 851.81 million poultry. Each year large number of livestock is lost due to natural disaster such as flood, cyclones, draughts avalanches, landslides, snowstorm and forest fire. Approximately 55% of its buffalo, 38% of its cattle, 41% of its goats and 47% of its pigs are vulnerable to floods which regularly destroy farmlands. On the other hand, 44% of country’s livestock are affected by draught. Cyclones also causes huge loss to the livestock as well as to the wildlife. According to Down to Earth magazine and Centre for Science and Environment approximately 92519 livestock were killed in India in 2023 due to extreme weather including cyclones.

PRACTICAL 1: PREPARATION OF READY-TO-COOK MUSHROOM PASTA

Pasta is a product originally made from wheat and is of different shapes and sizes. It is generally rich in carbohydrate but is deficient in protein especially amino acid balance. Therefore, addition of spices and dried vegetables may solve this problem. Moreover, fortification of pasta with tomato, garlic, mushroom or spinach makes it nutritious for consumption. Since instant foods are widely becoming popular and consumed throughout the world and is also a fast growing sector of the noodle industry because of busy life schedule of people.

Objectives

• Better understand the process and different stages of mitosis.
• Prepare your own specimens of onion root in which you can visualize all of the stages of mitosis.

Principle

The genetic information of plants, animals and other eukaryotic organisms resides in several (or many) individual DNA molecules, or chromosomes. For example, each human cell possesses 46 chromosomes, while each cell of an onion possesses 8 chromosomes. All cells must replicate their DNA when dividing.

DNA replication in eukaryotes is followed by the process called mitosis which assures that each daughter cell receives one copy of each of the replicated chromosomes. During the process of mitosis, the chromosomes pass through several stages known as prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The actual division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis and occurs during telophase. During each of the preceding stages, particular events occur that contribute to the orderly distribution of the replicated chromosomes prior to cytokinesis.

An onion root tip is a rapidly growing part of the onion and thus many cells will be in different stages of mitosis. The onion root tips can be prepared and squashed in a way that allows them to be flattened on a microscopic slide, so that the chromosomes of individual cells can be observed easily. The super coiled chromosomes during different stages of mitosis present in the onion root tip cells can be visualized by treating with DNA specific stains, like Feulgen stain and Acetocarmine stain.

Introduction

Increasing consciousness about conservation of environment as well as health hazards associated with agrochemicals and consumers’ preference to safe and hazard free food are the major factors that lead to the growing interest in environmental friendly forms of farming in the world. Organic agriculture is one such broad spectrum of production methods that are supportive to the environment. The basic requirement in organic farming is to increase input use efficiency at each stage of farm operation.

Background
Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC) smears are a valuable diagnostic tool in veterinary medicine, offering insights into various animal diseases. By isolating and examining PBMCs— comprising lymphocytes and monocytes, veterinarians can detect hematologic abnormalities, immune responses, and the presence of infectious agents or neoplastic cells.
This method is particularly useful in diagnosing viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, as well as immune-mediated disorders and certain cancers. PBMC smears provide a quick and cost- effective way to assess animal health, aiding disease diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment planning. Following is the utility of PBMC smear in animal disease diagnosis;
1. Identification of abnormalities in WBC morphology
2. Identification of abnormalities in the number of cells like leukosis leukopenia.
3. Certain viral infections, such as canine distemper or feline leukemia virus (FeLV), can cause characteristic changes in PBMCs that are detectable on a smear.
4. Detection of blood parasites like Babesia and Ehrlichia. These parasites are detected using a blood smear; isolation of PBMC from whole blood is not required.
5. Certain types of cancers, like leukemia or lymphoma, can be identified through changes in PBMCs. Abnormal proliferation of lymphocytes or the presence of blast cells can suggest hematologic malignancies.

46.1. Aim: To prepare pickle from different fruits.

46.2. Theory

The preservation of food in common salt (NaCl) or in vinegar or edible oil with the addition of spices and condiments is known as pickling. It is one of the most ancient /oldest methods for preservation of fruits and vegetables. Salt, vinegar, edible oil or lactic acid act as preservative in pickle making. Several kinds of pickles are sold in the Indian market. Mango pickle ranks first followed by lime, lemon, mushroom, galgal, aonla, jackfruit and karonda pickles.

Brining: For pickling, unripe fruits (like mango) after preparation (peeling, slicing) are mixed with salt or brine for its later use in pickle preparation