eChapters

T A Spoilage : The spoilage of low and medium acid canned foods by Clostridium thermosacharolyticum which breaks sugars and form acid and gas (moisture of H₂ and CO₂) resulted in swelling and in severe cases even bursting of can may occur and the spoiled food usually has a sour odour.

Abstract

It’s relatively frequent to hear about the customary consumption and commercialization of wild and cultivated mushrooms in European, North American and Asian tempered zones. In contrast, such a phenomenon has been widely unrecognized in Mesoamerican lowlands. The scarce interest for leading ethnomicological studies in these zones may be caused by a preconception according to which peoples inhabiting them do not use macroscopic fungi. Yet, archaeological evidence shows a relation between fungi and Mayan peoples existed during pre-Hispanic times.

Introduction

The horticulture sector has been a driving force in stimulating a healthy growth trend in Indian agriculture. This sector contributes around 28 per cent of the GDP from about 13.08 per cent of the area and 37 percent of the total exports of the agricultural commodities (Rather et al., 2013)  India is currently producing 257.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 23 million ha. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by about 3.8% per annum but production rose by 7.6% per annum. The higher growth rate in horticulture was brought about by improvement in productivity of horticulture crops, which increased by about 28% between 2001-02 and 2011-12. (Anonymous, 2012)

Introduction
  
Horticultural production can be highly profitable, increase employment opportunities, and bring about increasing commercialization of the rural sector. Horticulture thus has a role to play in a world where 1.1 billion people continue to live in extreme poverty on less than US$1 a day and another 1.6 billion who live between one and two dollars per day (Von Braun et al., 2004). While in past, priority to achieving self sufficiency in food grain production in our country, over the years, horticulture has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. The horticulture sector contributes around 28% of the GDP from about 13.08% of the area and 37 % of the total exports of agricultural commodities (Annon, 2007).

Introduction
   
The major land mark in the primary food production is the Green revolution during sixties, eventually leading the country to self-sufficiency in food grains. At present, agriculture and allied sector contributes 22% of GDP in India. Total arable area in India is 184 million hectares contributing a total food grain production of 210.01 million tonnes. Horticultural crops including fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. Horticulture crops cover over 20.7  million hectares of area, which is approximately 11.25%  of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output. India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 81.29 million tonnes of fruit and 162.2 million tonnes of vegetables (Annon., 2013).

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are an important supplement to the human diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and fibre required for maintaining health. For various reasons, this abundance of production is not fully utilized and about 25-30% of it is wasted due to spoilage. Most of fruits and vegetables are seasonal crops and perishable in nature. In a good season there may be a local glut, particularly of fruits, but because of insufficient transport facilities and poor availability of packing materials, the surplus cannot be taken quickly enough to the natural markets in urban areas. Moreover, the surplus often cannot be stored for sale in the off-season because of inadequate local cold storage facilities. Thus the growers do not get a good price for their produce because of the glut and some of it is spoiled resulting in complete loss.

Fº value: It is used to express F-value when z =10ºC / 18ºF and the temperature is 121.1ºC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250ºC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value. 

The interventions for women empowerment was perhaps started intensively since fourth plan period. Subsequently many more initiatives are taken for the total all round development of women in this country.

A. 4^TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-1974)

Farmers Training and Education Programme

It was for the first time in the 4^th Five Year Plan that an effort was made by Ministry of Agriculture to address the training and extension needs of women farmers with new and improved technology through “Farmers Training and Education Programme”, in which a network of 150 Farmers Training Centers were established to close the visible gap between the recommended package of practices and the farm women’s knowledge and skills about them. In this programme, a linkage of the supply of production inputs with improved technical training, supported by Farm Radio Broadcast and Functional Literacy was provided. The unique feature of this programme was that for the first time, a cognizance of women’s participation in agriculture was taken. The experience of the programme had shown that the states which gave due importance to this programme, especially in terms of curriculum planning and syllabus formulation (based on true status and needs of women farmers), achieved very good results. It was, this programme, which focused many issues that had to be categorically considered while planning and implementing agriculture support programmes for women farmers.

Basmati Rice

Basmati Rice is a simple grain, yet throughout history it has been on royal menus of various cultures as the main dish. From the pilav of Turkey, polou of Persia, pilafs of the Steppes, the isotos and paellas of the Mediterranean, to the pulau of India it has been served to great sultans, maharajahs, shahs and emperors. Spices, nuts, dried fruits, vegetables and herbs are a natural for Basmati rice. Basmati rice transforms rice dishes into extraordinary meals. Also known as the “Queen of Rice”, this highly aromatic grain that is long and elegantly thin, has originated from Vasumati which means earth recognized by its fragrance. The full exposition of the word is from Hindi. Bas originating from Prakrit Vas which has a sanskrit root- Vasay connoting aroma; and mati from mayup meaning ingrained from the origin. Common usage has changed Vas to Bas while joining bas and mayup the latter changed to mati.. Thus the word Basmati originated.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Infestation by insect pests is a major factor responsible for the low productivity of spice crops in India. Spice crops such as black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) are infested by many species of insect pests, some of which cause severe crop losses. Adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) schedules in which biological control forms a major component is more relevant in these crops since excessive use of insecticides could lead to pesticide residues in the produce and other ecological hazards. Spices are high-value and export-oriented in nature and pesticide residues are the most important non-tariff barriers on trade in these produces. There has been a renewed interest during the past decade in developing environment–friendly crop management schedules in sustainable agriculture including spice crops, reflecting the increasing concern over pesticide misuse.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Vanilla is one of the most popular and widely used flavour materials in the world and it is the most expensive spice traded in the global market after Saffron (Crocus sativus L). The major consumers of vanilla beans currently are the developed countries with the US, France and Germany absorbing about 80 per cent of the world imports. Among them, the US imports 50-60 per cent while the latter 10-15 per cent each. They are also main re-exporters of both vanilla beans and processed products. The total area under vanilla cultivation in the world during 2002 was 38,066 ha with the production of around 4956 metric tones and increased to 76,440 ha with a production of 10, 360 tons during 2005 (FAO, 2007). The major vanilla producing countries are Madagascar, Comoros, Indonesia, Mexico and Reunion (Table 1). Area under vanilla in India during 2002-03 was 2545 ha with the production of 92 tonnes. (Spices Board, 2003) and increased to 5370 ha with a production of 196 tonnes during 2004-05.

6.1 Strength of India
    ·    In India, pomegranate is cultivated over 1.31 lakh ha with a production of 13.46 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 10.27 t/ha. 
    ·    India is the largest producer of pomegranates in the world.
    ·    Pomegranate is currently ranked 10th in terms of fruit consumed annually in the world. India is the only country in the world where pomegranate is available throughout the year i.e. From January to December. It is cultivated in 3 seasons (Ambia bahar, Mrig bahar and hasth bahar) in Deccan plateau of India. 
    ·    India is endowed with wide agro climatic conditions that offer immense scope for cultivation of various kinds of fruit crops. This provides an excellent platform for the country to emerge as a leading producer of fruit crop. 

Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology is increasingly used in our everyday lives. It is used in a variety of industries from gaming, journalism/media, to finance, as well as in the research fields from water resources to robotics. In this chapter concept and applications of AI are discussed in brief.

6.1 Historical Background

After World War II, a number of people worked independently on intelligent machines. The English mathematician Alan Turing was the first who explained the concept of intelligent machines through a lecture in 1947. He stated that intelligent machines could be developed by programming computers rather than by building machines. Since late 1950 many researchers are working on intelligent machines, mostly on programming computers

Protected cultivation practices can be defined as a cropping technique wherein the micro environment surrounding the plant body is controlled partially or fully as per plant need during their period of growth to maximize the yield and resource saving. Cultivation of vegetables under protective structures such as net houses has become popular in recent years (Kaur et al., 2004; Cheema et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2004). This enables, farmers to produce vegetables in the off-season, when fresh produce usually fetches higher price in the market.

Biological control is a strategy which employs utilization of natural enemies to reduce the damage caused by noxious organisms to tolerable levels (De Bach and Rosen, 1991). This is the most benign method for reducing pest population in vegetable ecosystem. It opens an amicable platform for production of organic vegetables with good export value. Since the late 1950s, much of the insect control in vegetables has been based on the use of synthetic chemical insecticides. Insecticides are relatively easy to use and have generally provided effective pest control. It is likely that they will always be a component of pest management programs. But, insecticides have some undesirable attributes. They usually present some degree of hazard to the applicator and other people who may come in contact with them, they can leave residues that some find unacceptable; they can contaminate soil and water and affect wildlife, aquatic life and other non-target organisms, they can interfere with beneficial organisms, such as pollinating insects and the natural enemies of pests. The insects also can develop resistance to insecticide. For these reasons, there is growing interest among farmers, entomologists and gardeners to explore and adopt methods that reduce pesticide use. 

1.1 Definition of Statistics

Statistics has been defined differently by different ‘Statisticians’ from time to time. These definitions emphasize precisely the meaning, scope and limitations of the subject.  The reasons for such a variety definitions may be stated as follows:

    i.    The field of utility of statistics has been increasing steadily and
    ii.    The word statistics has been used to give different meanings in singular (the science of statistical methods) and plural (numerical set of data) senses.

In order to have a clear grasp of the subject, we give below some selected definitions of statistics which are grouped under two main heads: ‘Statistics as numerical data’ and ‘Statistics as Methods’.  The former one is in plural sense and the latter singular sense.

Introduction

In a technology that consistently maintains a fantastic development curve with capabilities doubling up year-to-year, freezing the hardware specification is not easy or very meaningful. GIS (not geography) owes to its genesis and progress to the developments in information technology front. It may be asserted that any and all upgrade in the hardware industry will only add to its own ability to effectively process more and more data and handle more complex routines. The personal computers of today are seen to be adequate to run typical GIS software. A reference hardware specification is discussed here. GIS software development is an involved process but then the software developers have made good use of hardware capabilities available and have released upgrades consistently. Hardware developments are such that they defy a static spcification. However a reference specification as on 2009. An overview of various software packages used in the past as well as present is attempted. ESRI released a new version in 2002 and claimed that their ArcGIS is an “integrated collection of GIS software products for building a complete GIS that enable users to deploy GIS functionality wherever it is needed, in desktops, servers, or custom applications; over the Web; or in the field.” The details are discussed below. While a number of software overviews are available, this text is not aimed at providing a tutorial to any of the software packages nor do the comparisons made are to promote any particular software. Similarly, it is presumed that the reader is familiar with the hardware elements and functionality. Lot of information about the software packages are available on their respective web sites and the reader is exhorted to look for current, additional and in depth information required in the pages. A brief discussion on Liveware or human resource can be found at the end of the chapter.

Issue

2004-2005 saw an upsurge in seed industry takeovers and a shake-up in rankings. Today, the top 10 companies control half of the world’s commercial seed sales. With a total worldwide market of approximately US$21,000 million [$21 billion] per annum, the commercial seed industry is relatively small compared to the global pesticide market ($35,400 million), and it is positively puny compared to pharmaceutical sales ($466,000 million). But corporate control and ownership of seeds – the first link in the food chain – has far-reaching implications for global food security. This chapter examines seed industry consolidation and other recent trends in the commercial seed industry.

Introduction

Microorganisms are a great source of genetic diversity, still far from completely known and explored. The intimate association of plants with complex microbial communities is of great importance for the growth and productivity of plants in agriculture. There exists a definite difference in microbial community present in the bulk soil and the neighboring micro environments like phyllosphere, endosphere, rhizosphere and endorhizae. Microorganisms that colonize the plants’ rhizosphere are either pathogenic or beneficial according to their effects on plants and the way they interact with roots. The rhizosphere supports a plethora of microbial populations capable of exerting beneficial, neutral or detrimental effects on plant growth and development. Microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes, protozoa, algae, fungi, and viruses coexist in the rhizosphere; bacteria are the most abundant among them.

Abstract

The pressure due to increase in world population necessitates an increase in agricultural production and this warrants the vital importance of research in plant and soil productivity. Applications of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have resulted in soil pollution, desertification and salinisation which disrupted the agriculture production. A suitable microbial technology to improve the soil health and plant productivity has been invented. Increase in the use of bacterial fertilizers substantially reduced the use of chemical fertilizers. Similarly invention of specific antagonistic microbes which control pathogen and stimulate plant growth resulted in lesser use of agrochemicals. Selection, development and application of such microbial strains to the agronomic crops resulted improving the fertility of such affected soil. The studies on plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on the growth and nutrient uptake of various plants have been well studied. Presently, it has been found that the use of beneficial microbes can enhance the resistance ability to adverse stresses. Some mechanisms by which the beneficial microorganisms are able to stimulate plant growth and arrest plant pathogens include mobilization of nutrients, production of phytohormones, siderophores, organic acids, nitrogen fixation, lowering of ethylene levels in plants and antagonism. Here the recent developments that have been taken place on the interaction between plants and PGPR and their mechanism of action resulting in enhanced agriculture production and soil fertility are discussed.

Abstract

Plant-associated microorganisms play a significant role in conferring resistance to abiotic stresses. These organisms include rhizoplane and endophytic bacteria and symbiotic fungi and operate through a variety of mechanisms like triggering osmotic response and induction of novel genes in plants. The development of stress tolerant crop varieties through genetic engineering and plant breeding is essential but a long and strained process, whereas microbial inoculation to alleviate stresses in plants could be a more cost effective environmental friendly option which could be available in a shorter time frame. Considering the current trends available, intensive future research is needed in this area, particularly on field evaluation and application of potential organisms.

Abstract

Current trend of global agricultural systems entails preference towards sustainable crop production through organic agriculture (ecology based) as compared to conventional (synthetic input based). In order to claim as organic, it needs to be certified as per requirements organic standard. The soil fertility management organic standard requirements of major countries are outlined. This review article compares the agricultural management practices of organic and conventional systems so as to assess its impacts on microbial biodiversity, microbial activities on soil functioning and long term fertility based on long term field studies conducted in different parts of the globe.

Abstract

Microorganisms execute many key functions that regulate the processes related to the fertility status, nutrient transformation, nutrient conservation, and soil health management that are crucial for agronomic sustainability. Rice soils offer peculiar conditions for microorganisms that support diametrically opposite biochemical reactions under flooded conditions. It is pertinent to note that both reduction and oxidation reactions of several essential nutrients mediated by microbes occur simultaneously in the flooded soils at various depths, profiles and stages of rice crop growth in concurrence. This is peculiar and specific to rice soils as the cultivation process demands changes in water regimes, operative and management practices.

Abstract

Nitrate uptake from the soil is the first step in nitrate acquisition and utilization by plants. Nitrate uptake and its release into cells is mediated by nitrate transporter(s) located into the plasma membrane of the root. Three transporters have been identified by kinetic measurements in plant roots. These are constitutive high affinity nitrate transporter (cHATS), inducible high affinity nitrate transporter (iHATS) and low affinity nitrate transporter (LATS). Two of these display saturable kinetics; a low capacity constitutive system and a high capacity inducible system. In addition, a non-saturating low affinity, high capacity system becomes apparent only at higher external NO^-₃ concentration. Genes that encode representatives of each class of transport system have been identified and fall into two families: NRT1 and NRT2. Members of these families are induced in response to nitrate in the environment and are regulated by internal signals including nitrogen metabolites and shoot demand for nitrogen. This chapter deals with the physiology and molecular biology of nitrate transporters in higher plants.

Summary

Lac is a resinous exudation from the body of female scale insect Laccifer lacca Kerr. belongs to family Lacciferidae of phylum Arthropoda, class  Insecta and order Hemiptera. The lac insect lives on native trees in India, China,Thiland, Burma/Myanmar and Malaysia. In India it is chiefly grown on trees like Kusum, “Palas”, and “Ber. It is also purposely cultured on shoots of these tree species. Lac cultivation is an alternative agricultural profession and provides subsidiary source of income for a large number of farmers mainly in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Odisha, North-East states and other parts of the country. India, which is the highest producer of lac, contributes around 55% of the total world requirement followed by China and Thiland. The country exports around 80-90% of its production.

Plant genetic resource (PGR) is fundamental to crop improvement programme and key to establish future food and nutritional security. In recent times there is a worldwide awakening about the conservation of natural resources viz., land, water and plant genetic resources for the sustainable development of mankind. With the increasing risk from the events like climatic change, natural resource degradation,habitat destruction and environmental pollution etc, now there is an worldwide  debate asking many questions - where the humanity is heading in the this 21st century? Whether the present form of indiscriminate growth pattern is sustainable over a long run?

ABSTRACT

This paper takes cues from the previous paper on the evolution of IPR concepts and attempts explaining the nuggets of TRIPS and analyzes the current trends in its implementation.

Introduction

As the TRIPS Agreement signifies stronger protection of conventional and new areas of intellectual property, the question that how implementation of TRIPS could influence developed and developing countries is to be addressed. The implications of such influence have far reaching consequences in terms of socio-economic development of Nation States, including geopolitical strategies and hence, a proper understanding on the plausible influence is essential.

Favourable effect of VAM association in plants has been attributed to an increased nutrient uptake by mycorrhizal roots. The transfer of ion from the soil to the roots by mass flow or by diffusion depends on the mobility of that particular ion in the soil. Ions such as NO₃^- ,SO ₄^— and Ca⁺⁺ may move rapidly through the soil to the roots by mass flow, and uptake would be limited by the absorbing capacity of the roots. On the other hand, ions such as H₂PO₄^-, NH₄⁺, Zn⁺⁺ and Cu⁺⁺ are poorly mobile and move to the roots by diffusion, the rate limiting steps is likely to be the movement to the root surface. Under such conditions, it is expected that uptake would be increased if ions could be moved rapidly through extramatrical hyphae of the VAM fungi rather than diffusing slowly through the soil. It is now well established that VA mycorrhizae enhance the uptake of phosphate by the roots but it is likely that they can also assist in the uptake of other ions. The following account provides an information on the findings of Indian mycorrhizasts on the effects of VA mycorrhizal association on nutrient uptake in the plants and its physiological implications.

Current status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and their benefits to the plants carried out by the mycorrhizasts of the country has been described in detail in chapters II to X.

Prior to the establishment of any specific forum, the pace of research on VA mycorrhiza in the country was not of desired level. However, the activities related to research on VA mycorrhiza gained unexpected momemtum when Mycorrhiza network came into exixtence in the year 1989. The network provided not only assistance and guidance of various types to the scientists working on VA mycorrhiza in the country but also offered them periodical platforms to exchange their informations and thoughts on status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and to propose future strategies of research. During the National conferences held in different parts of the country the panel of experts made certain observations regarding future prospects and strategies for research on VA mycorrhiza. They have been mentioned in the present chapter.

Small ruminant sector, after agriculture, is the second largest means for economic sustainability and livelihood in India. It contributed Rs. 32000 crore to the gross domestic product of India in 2012 -13 despite having a potential to contribute over Rs. 150,000 crore but there are certain lacunae in system which act as its growth inhibitor. Small ruminants are the main source for rural economies due to participation of women (70% of total) and weaker sections of the rural society. Thus there is urgent need for formulating policies to support the development of the small ruminant sector.
 
Sheep and goat husbandry is a tool for poverty alleviation of the rural masses because of wide adaptability with low investments, high fertility and fecundity, low feed and management costs, higher feed conversion efficiency, quick pay off and low risk in comparison to large ruminants. The above traits of small ruminants need to be exploited for economic upliftment of small farmers.

Small ruminants is a composite term used for sheep and goats. Throughout the developing countries, small ruminants make a very valuable contribution, especially to the poor in the rural areas. These contributions range from precious animal proteins (meat and milk) to fibre and skins, draught power in the highlands, food security and stable households. By and large, the importance and extent of the contributions are inadequately understood as a consequence of which these valuable genetic resources continue to be generally neglected. Research and development investments to improve the relatively low level of contribution do not match their potential importance, the contribution to nutritional security and livelihoods of the poor in rural areas. Species like goat and sheep are of short-generation interval, have a high prolificacy rate and require less land, investment and operational expenses and are better suited to the resource endowment of the poor.

Introduction

The globally growing demand for water has ushered the need for its efficient and judicial utilizations in all fields, and agriculture in particular being a single largest consumer of water. The majority of irrigation projects in India perform at a very low efficiency, which calls for application of efficient water management technologies for meeting the increasing water demands. Estimation of soil moisture or crop evapotranspiration from climatic parameters provides objective criteria for irrigation management. Methods to estimate evapotranspiration require huge climatic data, which are seldom available and not applied by common crop growers. Determining crop water requirement through soil moisture measurement at several locations is time consuming, destructive exercise, and may not give proper assessment of crop water need. The plant based indicator approach considers the plant water status for scheduling irrigation. This might be considered as the ideal criterion because the plant water is a good integrator of the soil, water and climatic parameters.

Experiment

An experiment is a planned inquiry to obtain new facts or confirm or deny the result of previous experiment. Such inquiry can aid in an administrative decision, such as recommending a variety, a feed, a cultural practices, a fertilizer, a pesticide or a fungicide etc.

Type of Experiments

    1.     Preliminary experiments : Here investigator tries out large number of treatments in order to obtain leads for future work. Here replications are not taken for such treatments tried e.g. number of pesticides for control of diseases - take single observation for each treatment and take decision that some of them worth trying for use.

Leaf vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin-C and minerals like calcium, iron etc.  They also provide roughage required in human diet.  The Indian Council of Medical Research (1984) recommended a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leaf vegetables in the diet of woman and man, respectively. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, cabbage etc. are the major leaf vegetables grown in the country. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.  The major annual leaf vegetables have a few features in common:

Abstract

“Darjeeling Tea” as a global brand brings attention to the Darjeeling District and creates a global imaginary which obliterates the dark colonial history, existing exploitation of the workers and the natural resources of the region. The global brand name is protected under the certification trademarks which has a geographical indication. Thus only tea from the 87 tea plantations can be called Darjeeling Tea. There is an increasing trend towards Darjeeling Tea going organic and fairtrade. This trend is critiqued with questions of how green and fair can a monoculture plantation get. Within this imaginary, small farmers’ tea offers an alternative paradigm based on equity and diversity. This paper explores the alternative by highlighting the (United Development Organization) journey of a small farmers collective Mineral Spring SanjuktaVikashSanstha.

ABSTRACT

With the developing world still depending on agriculture to a great extent and rural people depending on it for their livelihood, it comes as no surprise that family farms have been the focus of development in recent times. Family farms have been legacy for most of the farmers and along with it being principal livelihood option for many, the increasing need of agricultural extension services for these farms become more important. But at the same time, the huge gap between the number of famers or farm households and the extension personnel is a reality. And to bridge this gap, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can play a significant role. Another purpose it serves is making agriculture attractive to the young people engaged in farming, mostly by compulsion. ICTs like web portals, mobile phones and social media are the most popular and most widely used and can enhance the interaction among researchers, extension personnel and farmers. The youth today are hooked to the internet and their 1^st major activity on the web is social networking. Also, mobile phones are the most popular form of ICTs as has been proven by the sheer number of subscribers worldwide. And these tools, used appropriately, can change the whole structure of agricultural communication. ICTs can be an important part of communication strategies, connecting the youth to peers and professionals. It is true that the ‘apps won’t plough the fields’ but they will definitely help the youth do the job better. ICTs can prove to be a great catalyst in engaging agricultural community in family farms making agriculture attractive and sustainable again.

Key words : CAVD, Drug Design, Bioinformatics, CADD, Co-factor, Vaccinology, infectious diseases, Jenner, immunity, Molecular modeling, Immunoinformatics, Antigen, Antibody, Live Vaccine, Alive Vaccine, Protein-peptide, Enzyme, Tools for Vaccine design,
 
Vaccine – Prevention is Better than Cure

A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize the agent

Establishment of databases and data warehouse; knowledge discovery from database/data warehouse (KDD) and development of the mechanism of dissemination of knowledge on information networks as per requirements of user groups is gaining importance now a days. Since there is a large number of data collection agencies and equally diverse resources for which the information is collected, it is easy to visualize the heterogeneity of information. The problem is compounded by the fact that there are no common standards that are applied in data collection. Designing data warehouses to integrate the collected information poses a formidable challenge to any data warehouses architect. In order to use the information for planning and decision-making level, data have to be integrated and aggregated properly.

Everyone on this earth wishes to have a healthy life free from all ailments, stress and strain. But it is a common observation that some of us are more susceptible to diseases and fall victim of many infections while others have the capacity to resist many such infections. They are not so much susceptible to diseases. Is there anything which distinguishes them from others? An organism is made up of organs and organs systems. Like many other organ systems, in the body there is a system which is concerned with the protection of the body from infections.

Like any other organ system in the body, immune system comprises of various organs and cells. The major component of the immune system is the lymphocytes which constitute lymphoid system. The lymphoid organs are classified into two categories: primary and secondary lymphoid organs.

Primary lymphoid organs: These are the organs where B and T lymphocytes undergo maturation. Bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs. These are the organs where lymphocytes differentiate, proliferate, get selected and mature into functional cells.

Animal protein has a great importance in human health by providing essential amino acids. It is supplied by the milk, meat, fish, eggs etc. Specifically meat has a prime position in the human’s diet particularly for those who are non- vegetarians. As per Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommendations a normal human being requires 60 gram protein in a day with the net protein utilization (NPU) of 65. In ideal cases 30 to 50 percent of daily protein intake should be from animal sources to get optimal range of amino acids. In present scenario human beings all over the globe are getting 29 gram of protein while developing countries have 15 g per day availability and developed nations are getting 60 grams protein per day per head. However, in India availability of protein is only 10 grams/day/head.

Ante-mortem examination includes all procedure or tests conducted by a competent person on live animals for the purpose of judgement of safety, suitability and disposition. It is an integral step to be performed by qualified veterinarian during conversion of animal to carcass for wholesome meat production. The animals are examined for cruelty due to overcrowding or suffocation or any other inflicted injuries and stress during transportation or otherwise, because it not only directly affects the quality of meat but also downgrade the carcass. Ante-mortem inspection ensures that only healthy animals are slaughtered and wholesome meat reaches to the consumers. A complete record of the ante-mortem inspection of all animals received in the abattoir should be maintained to ascertain that animal’s health status at the time of slaughter. Antemortem examination not only ensures the health animals entry into slaughter house but also assist in postmortem examination. It is also important to make a decision on certain diseases based on symptoms because they may not show the postmortem lesions for final judgment. Ante-mortem inspection has twofold functions as it enables veterinarians to protect public health and to assess the welfare conditions in which the animal is placed.

Humane slaughter is an act of killing the food animals in such a way as to cause the minimum stress or distress to the animal. To achieve this objective animal must be rendered insensible instantaneously and remain insensitive to pain until there is a complete loss of brain responsiveness due to exsanguination. The unconsciousness in animals is induced by stunning procedures which are varying in number. The method of stunning primarily based on species, breed, age, sex, kind and mental state of animals. Stunning is essential to safeguard the feelings and anxieties of animals. It facilitates maximum bleeding from the animals because animal becomes unconscious after stunning. To make animal unconscious before bleeding is not only essential for animal welfare point of view but it is legislation in many countries.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point is a comprehensive food safety system of food which starts from production to the ultimate consumption. HACCP monitors each and every step of production process, identify the specific hazards, implement the effective control programme and also verify the procedure. However, it is not a zero risk programme and there is possibility of risk of hazards in the process but the theme of programme is to minimize the risk of hazards upto a level which will be considered as safe. Thus HACCP programme is termed as risk management tool. It involves the management of all types of hazards like microbiological, chemical and physical.

The sanitation word is derived from a Latin word sanitas, meaning “health.” In true sense sanitation is the creation and maintenance of hygiene and healthful conditions in abattoir or meat processing plant. So that produced food provides full nutrients with minimal contaminations and hazards to the human health. It creates the aesthetic environment in the workplace which ultimately enhances the work efficiency and satisfaction to the workers. It helps in maintenance of clean environment, less pollution, proper waste disposal and improves ecological balance. It is a prerequisite of food safety, good hygienic practices and total quality management.

Abstract

In Cyprus the National Agricultural Research System is mainly under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment (MANRE). One of its departments, namely the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), is the only recognized public institution engaged exclusively in applied agricultural research, covering the wider domain of crop and animal production. Another department of the MANRE, the Department of Agriculture (DA) has as its main mission the development of the agricultural and livestock sector through the education and guidance of the farmers, the planning and the implementation of development programmes. 

Theophrastus gave the name “ORCHIDS” to the group of bizarre plants on the basis of the resemblance of paired underground tubers of these plants to masculine anatomy. This resemblance was also responsible for the mistaken belief that the orchids posses aphrodisiac properties and eating of underground tubers might “provoke venus” and they may be get male children. The appreciation of orchid beauty has a very long history in both the Western and Eastern cultures. Much of this is attributed to the diverse form and structure of orchids and the large number of species in the orchid family. Orchidaceae is amongst the most diverse family of the flowering plants consisting of 35,000 species under 880 genera (Kumar and Sheela, 2007, Fay and Chase, 2009). Orchids belong to the highest level of organization and are distinguished by the complicated biology of reproduction with long developmental cycle (Vakhrameeva et al., 1991, Sherif et al., 2012). They are beautiful and exotic perennial herbs grown in both north and south hemispheres. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flowers. Its flowers have lustrous, translucent petals rich in variegated colors and fragrances. Generally Orchids can grow at different elevations (Kumar and  Sheela, 2007).

Many microbes have ability to attach to various surfaces forming three dimensional extracellular matrix within which embedded the microbes grow and multiply forming thin layer structure called biofilm. Biofilms may form on living or non-living surfaces and can be prevalent in natural, industrial and hospital settings (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004). Biofilm mainly consist of three components - bacteria, matrix and surface. Extracellular matrix generally composed of extracellular polymeric compounds such as extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, phospholipids, DNA, teichoic and nucleic acids, and other polymeric substances hydrated to 85 to 95% water and polysaccharides (Hall-Stoodley et al., 2004).

The problem of insect-pest, disease and weed is acute in case of all the crops and especially so in case of commercial crops. Pesticides, fungicides or chemicals are meant to control harmful pests such as insects, nematodes, diseases, weeds etc. However, excessive use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides not only leave residues in soil, water and air but also have adverse effects on the non-target organisms such as pollinators, parasitoids, predators and wild animals. This has adversely affected the ecological balance resulting in pest resurgence, development of resistance in the pest species, diseases and environmental pollution.

Azolla is a free-floating water fern that floats in water and fixes atmospheric nitrogen in association with nitrogen fixing blue green alga Anabaena azollae. Azolla fronds consist of sporophyte with a floating rhizome and small overlapping bi-lobed leaves and roots. Rice growing areas in South East Asia and other third World countries have recently been evincing increased interest in the use of the symbiotic N2 fixing water fern Azolla either as an alternate nitrogen sources or as a supplement to commercial nitrogen fertilizers. Azolla is used as biofertilizer for wetland rice and it is known to contribute 40-60kg N/ha per rice crop. The agronomic potential of Azolla is quite significant particularly for rice crop and it is widely used as biofertilizer for increasing rice yields. Rice crop response studies with Azolla biofertilizer in the People’s Republic in China and in Vietnam have provided good evidence that Azolla incorporation into the soil as a green manure crop is one of the most effective ways of providing nitrogen source for rice.