eChapters

ABSTRACT

Arunachal Pradesh, the largest state of North-East India is unique state of the country in the sense that its altitude range between 70 – 7000 m, have 26 major tribes besides 110 sub-tribes, have 82 per cent of its land under forest and most of the area is under the control of local tribes which practice shifting cultivation. The paper presents the potentialities of agroforestry in Arunachal Pradesh. The different agroforestry systems prevailing in the state are also given in detail. Agroforestry systems which are scientifically tested and the direction in which research are to be done in future to extend agroforestry has also been presented.

INTRODUCTION

Indian Eastern Himalaya, covers the states of Assam, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya (Kukreti, 2000). The erstwhile North East Frontier Agency, now Arunachal Pradesh, the largest state among the North-eastern states of India lies at latitude 26°28’-29°30 N and longitude 91°30’- 97°30 E with a geographical area of 83,743 km². The human population of the state is 10,91,113 (GOI, 2002). The recorded forest area in the state is 68602 km² which is 82.0 per cent of the geographical area of Arunachal Pradesh (Kukreti, 2000). The forest cover in the state forms the highest amongst all the states of the country and state is least densely populated. The state is bounded by Bhutan to the west, Myanmar to the east, China to the north and north east, and the plains of Assam to the south. There are 26 major tribes and 110 sub tribes which inhabit different parts of the state, with a life style totally dependent on the forest resources. Moreover, almost all the major tribes and sub tribes has been practicing shifting cultivation from the ancient time in this region which is integral part of sociocultural life of the tribal people.

ABSTRACT

Mizoram is predominantly a hilly state where people have been practicing agroforestry in a variety of forms from traditional shifting (jhum) cultivation to the most scientific-induced agroforestry models. However, ‘jhum’ still remains the main form of land use even though it is known to cause severe soil, water and biodiversity erosion and low crop productivity. The induced agroforestry practices carried out in Miozram have the ability to replace shifting cultivation but these systems again are not properly designed to tackle various biophysical, socio-cultural and economic need of the people, resulting in their poor acceptability. The paper reviews various agroforestry systems prevailing in Mizoram and details some ongoing agroforestry research trials in the State.

ABSTRACT

In the state of Meghalaya, forests are being degraded by age-old practice of shifting agriculture by native tribes and other human activities. Agroforestry has a great potential both from the point of view of restoration and maintenance of soil fertility and to increase agriculture production. The traditional system of agriculture in the state is primitive, labour intensive and dependent on rainfall. The proportion of space occupied by the tree and crop components in the traditional system largely depends upon factors like soil types, plant species and crop arrangements. The common traditional systems practiced in the state may be grouped under agrisilviculture, agrihorticulture, silvihorticulture, pastoralsilviculture and pastoralhorticulture. Agroforestry systems can play an important role in soil conservation and improvement in moisture and nutrient levels through efficient cycling of nutrients, which in turn would enhance agriculture production. The analysis of different agroforestry systems in the state of Meghalaya suggests that further improvement of the existing systems may yield high productivity and make them more sustainable.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is an ideal scientific approach to tackle the problems of degraded lands and to bring about eco-restoration and maintenance of soil resources. The significance of tree based land use systems in general and agroforestry in particular, has been realized in improving the economy of farmers having small land holdings (Chauhan and Dhyani 1990, Beer et al 1990, Fisher 1990, Dhyani and Tripathi 1999). The fertility of soils can be improved under the influence of tree cover, which checks erosion, contributes to accumulation of organic matter content, adds nitrogen through symbiotic N-fixation by leguminous or actinorrhizal trees and continuously replenishes the nutrients through effective recycling mechanisms. It offers a practical means of achieving greater outputs and at the same time maintains soil fertility that ultimately helps in increasing productivity of agricultural crops and trees.

ABSTRACT

Assam has been divided into six agroclimatic zones on the basis of soil, climate, terrain and vegetation. It comprises of Brahmaputra plain zone to Hill zone. The paper deals with the traditional agroforestry systems prevailing in all these agroclimatic zones along with the research activities which are going on in Assam. Salient research achievements with respect to tree-crop compatibility are given at the end of the chapter. Impact of agroforestry research on farmers of Assam in terms of adoption is also given.

INTRODUCTION

Assam, one of the eastern states of India, lies between 240 N and 28018’ N latitudes and 8904’ E and 960 E longitudes. The state is surrounded by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh in the north, Nagaland, Manipur and a part of Arunachal Pradesh in the east, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya in the south and West Bengal in the west. The state is endowed with abundant fertile land and water sources with a total geographical area of 78,523 km² with population density of 318 per square kilometer.

ABSTRACT

Orissa is traditionally an agrarian state. It is endowed with vast natural resources, diversified agro-edaphic conditions,rich flora and fauna, wide range of land holdings, various socio-cultural groups and people with multiple economic strata. These factors have led to evolve a variety of agroforestry systems and practices. The traditional agroforestry systems which are prevailing in the state since time immemorial are broadly agrisilvicultural, silvipastoral and agrisilvipastoral systems. The prominent agrisilvicultural systems include podu/jhum cultivation, multipurpose trees on farm lands, multiple species tree gardens and agroforestry for fuel wood production. The important silvipastoral systems are trees on pasture, fodder trees and shrubs on forest land and live fence of fodder trees and shrubs. The very old agrihortisilvicultural system prevailing in the state is homegarden. Interventions of Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology and various Government and Non-Government agencies have resulted in the development of some improved agroforestry practices in recent years. Some of the improved agroforestry practices are Acacia mangium based agrisilvicultural practices, Guava based agrisilvicultural practices, coconut based agroforestry practices, Eucalyptus (Clonal) based agrisilvicultural practices, windbreaks, timber tree based agrisilvicultural practices, Sesbania grandiflora based agrisilvicultural practice, Acacia mangium based silvipastoral system, mangium-guava based silvipastoral practices, improved homegardens, commercial block plantations on farmlands and apisilvicultural practice.

ABSTRACT

West Bengal is the gateway to North-East and has diverse vegetation and social strata. The paper presents the agroclimatic zones of the state along with their characteristic features. The scenario with regard to agriculture, forest cover and livestock shows that practicing agroforestry is the need of the state. For the sake of convenience the state has been divided into two parts: south Bengal and north Bengal. In the tribal dominated parts of the state home gardens are prevalent. Possible interventions in the present land use along with strategies to increase tree cover under agroforestry has also been discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Cultivation of tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination had been a practice through out the world at one period or another. Trees were integral and important component of the farming system. However, in the middle ages the concept changed and agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry were separated under a monoculture management system. This in long run led to an incredible reduction in forest cover and ecological imbalance. Scientists and managers once again began to think about changing the land use system and integrating trees with agriculture crops (Panwar et al., 2004). In India, research work on agroforestry was initiated during the late 1970’s by Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi; Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun; Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur and ICAR Research Complexes in isolation. National commission on agriculture also emphasized starting of agroforestry education in all agriculture university. The formal research activities related to agroforestry started in a big way with the initiation of All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) from 7^th Feb., 1983 with 20 centers, of which 12 were in State Agricultural Universities and rest in ICAR Institutes. Later more centers were added. The major emphasis was to have research centers in all the major ecological zones of India. In this venture in the first phase AICRPAF was initiated in West Bengal at Jhargram, Distt. Midnapore under the auspices of the then only Agricultural University in West Bengal - Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur representing Humid and Subhumid zone of West Bengal.

ABSTRACT

The paper gives a comprehensive detail of the state with regards to its inception, socio-economic, climatic and edaphic conditions. In addition states agroclimatic zones along with their characteristics have been described in the paper. Extent of agriculture crops, horticulture, animal husbandry, fisheries and forestry along with their production and contribution to national pool is provided elaborately. Details of agroforestry systems like silvipastoral and agrisilvipastoral for land with very high erosion and hortisilviculture and hortiagrisilviculture, aquaforestry, entomoforestry recommended for land with moderate to low erosion had been explained in details. Significant results obtained in agroforestry research under AICRP on Agroforestry and Horticulture and Agroforestry Research program have also been presented in this paper. Finally some tips to make agroforestry successful and future strategies have been given.

INTRODUCTION

Jharkhand state evolved as 28^th State on 15^th November 2000 from the southern part of Bihar, with a total area of 79.5 lakh ha and population density of 274/Km² consisting of 28 per cent schedule tribes and 12 per cent schedule caste population. A total of 29.61 per cent of the geographical area of the state consists of forest area with 28.4 per cent actual forest cover (Annon., 2001). Most of the forest area of the state consists of mines, which do not allow any agriculture. The continued large-scale mining operations of Coal and Iron ore are generating serious threats for the area coming under down streams. The areas lying under sharp undulating topography are under threats of soil erosion, which in turn affect the low lying water body’s carrying capacity i.e. due to continuous siltation, all such anomalies emphasizes the need to improve the water and land use efficiency in order to ensure better storage and retention of the rain water, for improving the productivity of the land.

ABSTRACT

Bihar is a state whose economy is solely dependent on agriculture. Though it has deep fertile land of alluvial origin, still agriculture of this state is facing problems due to frequent flooding. Population pressure on forest had led to creation of large extent of degraded lands. Agroforestry seems to be one of the viable option to avert these adverse conditions. Traditionally people used to integrate trees in farm lands in different forms. However, green revolution reduced these practices. The present paper provides a detailed account of prevalent agroforestry practices in Bihar. Results of different agroforestry systems which had been researched under AICRP on Agroforestry in Bihar since 1987 are also given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Bihar, the twelth largest state of India is bound on the north by Nepal, south by Jharkhand, east by West Bengal and on the west by Uttar Pradesh. The state lies between 24° 20’10″ to 27° 31’15″ N latitude and between 83° 19’50" to 88° 17’40"E longitude at an elevation of 53.12 m above the mean sea level and comprises an area of 93595.68 sq.km. The topography of Bihar is practically plain. The whole of the Bihar plain is traversed by a number of fairly large rivers, viz., Ganga, Ghagra, Kosi, Bagmati, Burhi Gandak, Kamla balan etc. which cause intermittent floods and engulf several districts of Bihar each year.

ABSTRACT

Maharashtra ranks second in terms of area under tree cover, however, still large chunk of land is lying without use or are underutilised because of their degradation status. Such degraded lands can be put to use through agroforestry. Agroforestry is being adopted in this state in one way or the other by raising trees on farm bunds, around cattle sheds etc. since earlier times. New innovative technology has now been developed by all the agricultural universities of state. The paper provides detailed information of different agroforestry systems which have been developed and practised in the state.

INTRODUCTION

Maharashtra is the third largest state of India having the geographical area of 307,713 km², which constitute 9.4 per cent of the country’s geographical area. The human population of the state is 96.75 million (9.4% of country’s population) of which 57.6 per cent is rural and 42.4 per cent is urban. The average population density is 314 persons per km². The tribal population is 9.3 per cent of the state population. The state supports livestock population of 36.4 million, which is 7.7 per cent of the country’s livestock population. The state rank second amongst all the state/UTs in terms of area under tree cover and third in term of recorded Forest Area (Anon, 2001).

ABSTRACT

Madhya Pradesh is declared as mega diversity state in India. It also harbours diversity in human population as 1/4^th of its population is tribal. These tribal people are practicing agroforestry since time immemorial. The state is divided into 11 agro climatic zones. The paper provides the agroforestry systems and species suitable for these zones. The traditional practices and the innovative agroforestry systems developed are also given. Agroforestry systems that are suitable for problematic soil have been briefly discussed. Efforts of different institutes like TFRI, JNKV and projects like TDET, ORP on Agroforestry, AICRP on AF in developing different system and their recommendations are also provided in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Environment remained in its pristine purity and congeniality till man stayed in the hunting and food gathering stage. But, as he entered in the pastoral age and domesticated animals, he gradually passed from the nomadic stage to settled cultivation. When, he cleared the first patch of earth and upturned the first sod and lifted the first bucket of water, the long story of his interference with environment started. Clearing trees for farming, disturbing the moisture regimes and furrowing the land endangered the phenomenon of erosion leading on to the problem of reducing the soil fertility. At the same time, the art of Agroforestry emerged, though in the most rudimentary fashion, which in varying form and emphasis has continued till today. Coming to recent times, the increasing pressure on land as well as on forests, rising demand for fuel and fodder and finally the requirement of timber for multifarious purposes have strengthen the need of agroforestry as an alternate land use system especially at natural resource conservation front (Singh, 1999). Pathak (2000) opined that agroforestry is a land management system that optimizes the overall land productivity and reduces resources depletion through the utilization of positive interactions between crops-trees-animals in its temporal and spatial dimensions. In this way, agroforestry operates in a given socioeconomic frame work; it is not a static but a dynamic structure.

ABSTRACT

Chhattisgarh is a tribal dominating state and is one of the backward and poor area of India in terms of poverty and productivity. The trees have been the part of agriculture in this region since long. The present paper highlights some of the practices which are being adopted by the farmers from time immoral and efforts had been made to fit them in the present day scientific classification system of agroforestry system with their spatial and temporal sequences. Despite of the fact that trees are integral part of farmlands still adoption of agroforestry as a sustainable land use has some constrains which have been discussed and way out suggested. Areas needed in developing agroforestry in the state have also been discussed at the end of the chapter.

ABSTRACT

Eastern Uttar Pradesh has 27 districts and lowest per capita net domestic output then other regions of the state. Rainfall is the only source of water. Acute shortage of fuel, fodder and timber makes agroforestry an important proposition for this region. The paper presents different agroforestry models developed by Allahabad Agriculture Institute for the region. Economics of the prominent agroforestry systems has been worked out. Emerging innovative agroforestry practices like aqua farming, honey bee, sericulture are discussed. Recommended species and agroforestry models for utilizing wastelands of the region are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

Eastern Uttar Pradesh covers an area of 87,840 sq. km. ranging from 24° - 28°20’ N latitude and 81° - 85° E longitude (map of Eastern U.P.) with population of 632 lakhs (Census, 2001). It has 27 districts and the lowest per capital net domestic output than other regions of U.P. It has 6 districts which are under developed and 15 districts are industrially backward. The contour of 100m roughly marks the western limit of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is mostly filled with deep alluvial deposits by the Ganga and tributaries. The Microregional variations are highlighted by the Bangar (the old alluvium) and the Khedar (new alluvium) formations. It enjoys tropical humid climate (rainfall varying from 120 cm to 140 cm). This region is plaughed with recurring floods and droughts. In 1983 Eastern Uttar Pradesh suffered a loss of the order of Rs. 319.12 crores because of the floods; in the same region, drought due to long dry spells left 3.820 lakhs ha. of sown area to wither. The menancing of Ganga – Ghaghara, Doab and recurring drought of trans Yamuna tract of Allahabad district, parts of Mirzapur and Varansi districts and big chunks of usar and unculturable wasteland (2.93 lakh ha) sap agricultural potential of these areas. Hardly 9.54 percent of total geographical area is under forests. Their paucity accenulates the problems of floods and soil erosion. Most Ganga plain is devoid of mineral wealth excepting kankar in Bhanagar tracts, but southern uplands are rich in minerals like limestone, dolomite, silica, sands, marble, building stone, magnesite and coal; organic matter is rich but nitrogen is deficient. Despite of vast water resources percentage of irrigated to gross cropped area is only 40.36 per cent that led cropping intensity only 145.20 and net irrigated to net sown area is 54.22 per cent. It has depressed economy where unemployment and underemployment is rampant, thus out migration is a typical phenomena.

ABSTRACT

Eastern part of the Uttar Pradesh falls in mid-Gangetic plain commonly called as ‘Purvanchal’. It is divided into three ecozones : i) North eastern tarai, ii) Eastern Plains, and iii) Vindhyan. Most of the farmers of the region have subsistence agriculture with small land holding. Although total forest area is 10.69 per cent of the geographical area, the actual well stocked forests (medium and good forests) in the region are confined to 3.51%. Vindhyan zone indicates higher dependence for fire wood (35% of the total need) on natural forests. Cow dung is major source used as fuel in Eastern plains (65% of the fuel requirement). The cropping systems are different in rainfed and irrigated lands. Surveys of different parts of the eastern U. P. indicate that people have a progressive attitude towards agroforestry. However, due to land hunger most of the farmers develop homesteads. Agrihorticulture system is most popular system adopted by large and medium farmers in the region. Agrisilvihorticulture system is adopted by the farmers of Eastern plains and North eastern tarai zones. Agrisilviculture, Silvihorticulture, Agrisilvihorticulture and sivipastoral systems researched by us, are recommended for adoption by the farmers.

ABSTRACT

Scattered trees/shrubs in agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of landscape in arid regions of India. These trees were considered as insurance to the people during drought years. In recent past importance of these trees in such areas had been recognized by the scientific world. Lot of research had been made and is continuing to identify and research the tree-crop combination. This paper reviews the tested agroforestry systems in arid region of country with particular reference to Rajasthan. Economic gains due to technology intervention in agroforestry system is also given.

INTRODUCTION

The people in the arid regions of India, since time immemorial has developed location specific agroforestry systems. The scattered trees / shrubs in the agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of the landscape. Since the beginning of cultivation the farmers deliberately allow the trees /shrubs to grow with the crops. They have screened the trees / shrubs based on their utility. They have considered that these trees are insurance to them during drought years. These trees provided lean period fodder, fruits, vegetable, timber, fuel, fiber etc. as farmers knew that occurrence of drought is common phenomenon in Rajasthan and due to failure of rains the crops failed to grow or their production is abysmally low. In the recent past efforts have been made to identify existing agroforestry systems for different agro-ecological zones (Malhotra, 1984 ; Harsh et al., 1992 ; Saxena, 1997). Efforts have also been made to study the production systems under each agroforestry systems and also to improve the existing systems through technological interventions (Harsh and Tewari, 2003; Tewari et al., 2004; Harsh et al., 2004).

ABSTRACT

The western part of India particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan received erratic and scanty rainfall and have sandy to sandy loam soil. In such climatic and edaphic conditions failure of crop is a regular phenomenon. In such situations a cropping system is required which can protect the associated crops from extremes of climatic condition and/or provide alternative/additional income. Agroforestry has such potentials; as a result lot of research had been done on agroforestry. This paper provides some of the agroforestry system and practices, which are suitable for Gujarat. The hurdles in adoption of agroforestry and its future prospects are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

North and North-West Gujarat fall under scarcity zone, where rainfall is inadequate as well as erratic in nature. Sandy loam soils with low moisture retention capacity pose problems of low and unstable crop production and degradation due to soil erosion. Under these situation, adoption of a high yielding, more remunerative, cost effective, compatible and multipurpose system ie Agroforestry is a dire necessity.

ABSTRACT

Haryana being predominantly agricultural state had only 2.86 per cent recorded forests at the time of its inception. Agroforestry has been an age old practice in Haryana as in other parts of India. It has existed in various forms through the time immemorial. Farm boundary plantation/natural regeneration and scattered trees in the farmlands were the main agroforestry interventions in Haryana till the seventies. To counter the environmental degradation and to provide fuel, fodder and timber different tree-crop combinations were tried for accessing their compatibility. As a result number of agroforestry systems had been recommended and are discussed in this paper. The paper also include methods of managing the perennial component of agroforestry system. Economics of some of the successful systems has also been discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Haryana state lies in the Indo-gangetic plains of North-west India. It has 44,212 sq.km of land and 90 per cent of this is in plains and the remaining area is in Shiwalik and Aravalli hills. Yamuna plains in the North and sandy plains in the South and West respectively have 50 per cent and 40 per cent of above land. More than 80 percent of the land is under agriculture. Canal and tube well irrigation is available for 65 per cent of arable land. Two crops per annum are a routine practice in Haryana. The climate of Haryana is arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid. It is sub-tropical, continental and monsoonic type. The range of temperature daily as well as annual is extreme. It varies from 1°C in winter to 47°C in summer. Mean annual average temperature varies from 23°C to 26°C. May and June are the hottest months while December and January are the coldest ones. The normal annual rainfall ranges from 300 mm in the southwestern parts of Bhiwani, Hisar and Sirsa districts to about 1500 mm in the northeastern hilly tract of Ambala district. The mean daily pan evaporation ranges from 2.4 mm in December and January to 13.4 mm in May and June.

ABSTRACT

Punjab is the richest state in the country in term of per capita income and has earned the name as food bowl of the country by putting 84-85 per cent of its geographical area under highly intensive, technical and mechanical agriculture with cropping intensity as high as 185 per cent and contributing more than one third of rice and half of its wheat production to the central pool of food reserve. The food grain production in the state has increased approximately twelve times in a span of about 50 years after independence from 20 lac tones in 1950-51 to 234.89 lakh tonnes in 2002-2003. Achieving this high productivity without caring for natural resources has resulted in a considerable loss in the inherent production potential and deterioration of soil health. As a result, man is getting serious warning signals in the form of lowering of water table, drought, high rate of environmental pollution, extremes of climatic parameters, etc. Agriculture in the state has become too intensive, wasteful and reckless and the radical changes are required to maintain the balance. Therefore, there is a strong thinking to diversify farming in the state to maintain the sustainability of the whole system. The state government is stressing hard to save the natural resources through the diversification in traditional crop rotation and adopt resource-conserving measures.

ABSTRACT

The paper introduces the biophysical environment and landuse pattern of newly formed state. On the basis of ownership of land the scope of adopting agroforestry had been discussed. Existing agroforestry systems under different agroclimatic zones of Uttaranchal are provided with examples. Tree improvement program and system development research carried out under AICRP on Agroforestry for Terai zone of the state has also been discuused in the paper. Constraints in adopting and carrying out research in agroforestry along with future strategies to extend agroforestry in Uttaranchal are also given in the paper.

INTRODUCTION

Uttaranchal, formed on November 9, 2000, is the 27^th state in India. The state is spread over 53,483 km² of land, which extends between 77° 34’ and 81° 02’ E longitude and between 28° 43’ to 31° 27’ N latitude. It covers 1.67 per cent of the country’s total area and is home to 84.7 lakhs of people as per the provisional census report 2001. The entire state forms part of the Central Himalayas. The state is strategically located and forms part of the Northern boundary of the country sharing its borders with Nepal and China. The entire region, except the southern most foothills belt, is mountainous with a series of ridges and valleys. Starting with an altitude of about 240 m in the tarai on the southern fringes, the terrains rise to 7817 m in the north with in a short width span of about 160 km. It touches Tibet in the north, Himachal in the west and northwest, gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh in the South and Nepal in the east. Uttaranchal has two administrative divisons, the western half known as Garhwal and the the eastern region known by the name of Kumaon.

ABSTRACT

The practice of agroforestry in the hills and mountains of Himachal Pradesh is as old as the hill agriculture itself. Farmers are retaining trees on the farmlands for the multiple benefits they provide. The selection of the trees, their planting pattern and density is chosen in such a way that it had minimum effect on the associated crop. The present paper gives the prevalent agroforestry systems with their components in different agroclimatic zones of Himachal Pradesh along with their management practices. Adoption of landuse practices depends to a large extent on status of the farmer concerned. Paper presents the association between type of farmer and the corresponding agroforestry systems they adopt. Sustainability of agroforestry systems, their role in climate change and social and economic gain of agroforestry systems in hills had also been detailed. A comprehensive list of agroforestry components had also been appended as annexures.

INTRODUCTION

Farmers throughout the Indian Himalayas covering about 16 states partially or fully have nurtured trees on their farms and in the agricultural landscape both for production and protection benefits for millennia. Mountainous region like Himachal Pradesh located in western Himalayan range present wide range of tree growing practices and systems owing to the diverse physiographic and demographic mosaic.

The state is located between 30° 22’ 40” to 33° 12’ 40” N latitude and 75°47’ 55” to 79°4’ 20” E longitude and extends over a geographical area of 55673 km² which is 1.69 per cent of the country’s area and 10.5 per cent of the Himalayan landmass. This land locked state is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir in the north, Punjab and Haryana in the south–west and Uttaranchal in the south–east. In the north–east the state forms the international boundary with the Tibet. Agricultural landscapes are characterized by undulating topography wherein terraced fields are made on medium to steep slopes. Crop fields on sloppy lands are in general 5-10 m wide and 20-30 m long almost conical on both ends and wide in the middle. In valley areas and on lands with gentle to mild slopes (up to 40%) large sloping fields have been developed manually by the farmers where Government has undertaken land consolidation.

ABSTRACT

Deforestation, land degradation, biodiversity decline, demand of fuelwood, fodder and timber had necessitated the planners and scientists to develop a system of cropping which would be able to revert these detrimental effect of exploitation and simultaneously provide the day-to-day needs. In present paper we have revisited our ancestors who practiced agriculture in a sustainable basis by keeping trees in the field. This paper intends to highlight some of the problems which are being faced in North-Western Himalayas and suggest different agroforestry practices which should be adopted to sustainable utilize our resources.

INTRODUCTION

Though late, the country and the society have gradually started to realize the detrimental deterioration of our ecosystem and environment. There are several factors and reasons for the same. However, land use in the country in general and hills in particular have proved to be one of the most important factors and needs much of attention for proper planning. The vital role of the forests in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem has long been acknowledged world over. In our country too, it was rightly resolved through a National Forest Policy Resolution in the years 1952 to bring at least twothird of the land in hills under the forest cover. This decision, though wise timely and farsighted, was never implemented with same spirit and there are evidences to accept the fact that effective forest cover in hilly areas is far less. The increasing need of expanding industrialization and urbanization coupled with population growth, the process of illegal and indiscriminate cutting of trees is resulting in consistent decrease of forest cover in the hills. The cultivation of land on steep slopes and hillsides is causing heavy loss of top soil and depleting the productivity of these soils besides siltation of river beds and cultivated lands down below. Coupled with this is the reckless destruction of vegetative cover by way of over-grazing which is resulting in large scale denudation and degradation of lands and thereby increasing acreage under wastelands. With this background the regular rains for which most of our country was well known have become irregular and drought have become a permanent menace and crores of rupees spent on relief work. The need for developing correct methodologies of land uses has become imperative to protect the existing forest cover, whether on public or private lands. Forest influences the rural prosperity and the human needs for the growing population have to be ensured while preserving the environment and ecological balance. A sustainable land-use system in conformity with ecological stability, economic viability and above risk aversion is desirable land use pattern in the Himalayan region.

ABSTRACT

The state of Jammu and Kashmir, especially the valley of Kashmir, has a rich diversity of traditional agroforestry models, which are in existence since time immemorial. Agroforestry is based primarily on natural occurrence of trees. The paper highlights the traditional agroforestry systems prevailing in the valley. A number of studies have been undertaken since the inception of AICRP-AF in University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Kashmir. Besides design and diagnostic survey, studies on evaluation of twelve multipurpose tree species identified during design and diagnostic survey and designing of various agroforestry models for different problematic sites have been undertaken. These studies have been tested over a period of time and have been found suitable for different sites. The out come of these studies and the recommended agroforestry systems are given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Land is a vital natural resource and is the basis of our existence. Due to mounting pressure of increasing human and livestock population it has been subjected to various pressures and misuse resulting in degradation of land and loss of biodiversity. Management of land is therefore, of paramount importance so that increasing needs of human and livestock are met on sustainable basis. During the last three decades agroforestry has been recognised as a distinct land management system, which is destined to play an important role in socio-economic transformation of marginal lands into more productive agrarian economy. India has a long tradition of agroforestry, farmers and land owners in different parts of the country integrate a variety of woody perennials in their crop and livestock production fields, depending upon the agro climatic conditions and local needs. Most of these practices are, however, location specific and information on these is very scanty, therefore, benefits have remained vastly under exploited and un extrapolated to other sites.

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry research and development in scientific mode in India started about thirty years ago with few individual scientists working on the aspect. However, concentrated efforts started with the establishment of a network under co-ordinated mode throughout the country in the year 1983. Since then lot of research has been done and recommendations made. The present paper compiles the chronological sequences of the starting of AICRP on AF along with its co-ordinating partners. Suitable perennial species and agroforestry systems recommended for respective agroclimatic zones of the country are also compiled. National seminars and group meeting conducted for popularizing and extending agroforestry to every corner of the country had also been provided.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is an age old practice and was a way of life since the settled agriculture evolved from forest. However, with passage of time the cropping system was converted to monocropping and in the way the benefits of integrating the perennials with annuals were forgotten. In the late 70’s of 20^th century, benefits of integrating perennials in cropping system was again realized and efforts were diverted towards scientifically associating the perennials and annuals. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan an eminent scientist while addressing first agroforestry seminar at Imphal in 1979 stated that agroforestry lies the key solution of some of the problems of forestry “what is now important is to give a scientific context and better planning like a good architect who can plan the use of space more efficiently”. This seminar was a spark in the history of scientific agroforestry in India. Taking into account the vide variation in edaphic and climatic factors in India along with the perennial nature of the systems, it was felt that working in isolation would not yield fruitful results and therefore, an association of scientist and institutes of different agroclimatic regions in form of a network was felt imperative and a viable wayout and hence the birth of AICRP on Agroforestry. All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was initiated vide ICAR letter number 21(1)/80-SW & DF dated 7^th February, 1983 at 20 centers of which 12 centers were located in State Agricultural Universities and eight at the ICAR institutes. Later on more co-ordinating centers were added and at present there are 37 AICRPAF co-ordinating centers with 10 centers in ICAR institutes and 27 centers located in State Agriculture Universities covering all the major agroecological zones of the country. The coordinating unit of the project was initially located at ICAR, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, which was shifted to National Research Center for Agroforestry, Jhansi w.e.f. 1^st April, 1997 under the administrative control of Director, NRCAF.

ABSTRACT

In India agroforestry practices are ancient but the story of organized agroforestry research began in 1979 at Imphal. Considerable efforts have been expended towards promoting and implementing agroforestry practices in the country by establishing centers for agroforestry research in almost all agro-climatic zones. Though almost 30 years has passed since systematic research started however, adoption of agroforestry is still in patches. This is because of myths attached with integrating trees with crops, market condition, rules regarding timber movements, allelopathy, long duration and so on. This paper examines the various arguments for and against agroforestry practices in India and presents the opportunity and challenges in adopting agroforestry as a sustainable land use practice.

INTRODUCTION

In India the green revolution led to increase in production through enhanced productivity. Unfortunately the population growth is increasing at a rapid rate and there is an urgent need to accelerate agricultural growth to address issues on food security, nutrition adequacy, rural income generation, employment and poverty. Despite higher production, the per capita availability of food over time has not increased significantly. About 70 to 80 per cent of our people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining; this affects the rural poor most. The urban – rural divide and regional disparities are on the increase. To achieve a desirable rate of 7 per cent growth in the economy, agriculture must register a growth not less then 4 per cent. Now it is around 2 per cent and is declining (Singh, 2002). These continuous improvements in productivity are essentials but these must be capable of being maintained in perpetuity. In other words, an evergreen revolution rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, social and gender equity, energy conservation, employment generation and social auditing, is essential in major farming systems of India. Land, water and vegetation care constitute the foundation for building up such an evergreen revolution movement.

1.    The concept of agribusiness was born in Harvard University in the year____________.

(a) 1947

(b) 1956

(c) 1967

(d) 2006

2.    In agriculture education system, the concept of “Agribusiness” was first time used by

(a) John Davis

(b) P F Drucker

(c) Henery Foyal

(d) F.W. Taylor

1.    Thomas Malthus suggested that population growth _____________.

(a) Would eventually lead to starvation and death as it exceeded the land’s potential to produce food

(b) Would lead to strong and better societies

(c) Would grow at a slower rate than land’s potential to produce food

(d) And the land’s potential to produce food would grow at the same rate

2.    Which population growth rate is likely to add relatively more to younger age population (youth effect on size of labour force)?

(a) Larger

(b) Smaller

(c) Uncertain

(d) Population growth rate does not affect the age structure of population

1.    Operations Research provides ___________.

(a) Earliest solution

(b) Feasible solutions

(c) Scientific approach to solutions

(d) Statistical approach to solutions

2.    Operations Research totally eliminates ___________.

(a) Quantitative approach

(b) Intuitive approach

(c) Qualitative approach

(d) Decision makers ability

1.    The first step in an econometric study should be to___________.

(a) Develop the specification

(b) Collect the data

(c) Review the literature

(d) Estimate the unknown parameters

2.    OLS stands for what in Econometrics?

(a) Optimally linearized solution

(b) There is no such thing in econometrics

(c) Ordinary least squares

(d) None of these

1.    Normally economic growth refers to ___________.

(a) Growth in actual nominal per capita output

(b) Growth in potential real per capita output

(c) Growth in actual real per capita output

(d) Growth in potential real per capita output

2.    Which one of the following is not true about economic development?

(a) Problem of under developed country

(b) Its discontinuous and spontaneous change

(c) It means more output only

(d) Its innovative process

1.    ___________means studying, examining and analyzing the financial aspects are pertaining to farm business.

(a) Agricultural finance

(b) Finance management

(c) Accounting management

(d) All of these

2.    Agricultural finance deals with the :–

(a) Acquisition of fund

(b) Use of fund

(c) Management of funds

(d) All of these

1.    A series of activities involved in moving the agricultural goods and services from production point to ultimate consumers is known as–

(a) Agricultural marketing

(b) Agricultural selling

(c) Marketing

(d) Agricultural finance

2.    The study of all the activities, agencies and policies involved in the procurement of farm inputs by the farmers and the movement of agricultural products from the farm to consumers is known as :–

(a) Personal selling

(b) Agricultural marketing

(c) Rural marketing

(d) None of these

1.    A farm is a

(a) Producing unit

(b) Consuming unit

(c) Both of a & b

(d) None of these

2.    Farm is a_________unit.

(a) Economic

(b) Social

(c) Decision making

(d) All of these

1.    The term “macroeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word?

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MAKROS

(d) MACROS

2.    Who coined the term ‘macro economics’?

(a) A. Smith

(b) Samuelson

(c) A. Marshall

(d) Ragner Frish

1.    The word “economics” has been derived from the Greek word_______ which means household management?

(a) OIKONOMICAS

(b) OIKOS

(c) NOMOS

(d) OICONOMICAS

2.    The term “microeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word ____________.

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MACROS

(d) MACROS

India situated between the latitude of 8°04/ and 37°06/N and longitudes of 68°07 to 97°25, has a geographical area of 329 Mha. Physiographicaly, it can be divided into the three broad regions, viz., Peninsula (a triangular Plateau in the Deccan and South of the Vindhyas), Mountain region of the Himalalayas (Extra-Penninsula), and the Indo-Gangetic Plain separating the these two regions.

Geologically, a great part of the Penninsula is occupied by the gneiss, schists and other rocks of diverse nature. Red soils (Alfisols) generally predominate in this region. The western and central parts predominate in basaltic rock having Black cotton soils of different thickness (Vertisols Inceptisols). The mountain region shows the development of marine sediments of all ages especially in north of the Himalayas.

The vast Indo-Gangetic and other plains of Pleistocene origin are composed of alluvium of the great river systems flowing in this region. The alluvial soils of this region depend on the age of alluvia and degree of development.

Climatically, India shows three distinct seasons, viz. i) cool and mainly dry winters from November to February, ii) hot and mainly dry summers from March to June and iii) monsoon rainy season from mid June to September. Rainfall is received during June to September (from the south-west monsoon) and during December to February (from the north-eastern winds). The Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas ranges receive maximum rainfall because of their alignment across the summer monsoon winds. The Indo-Gangetic plains receive moderate rainfall; Rajasthan receives little rainfall as the Aravallies lie along the path of the moisture- bearing winds.

Role of Seed Technology

1. Improved seed - a carrier of new technologies

The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties wisely combined with other inputs significantly increase yield levels. In India, the cultivation of high yielding varieties have helped to increase food production from 52 million tonnes to nearly 180 million tonnes over a period of 40 years.

2. Improved seed - a basic tool for secured food supply

The successful implementation of the high yielding varieties programme in India has led to a remarkable increase in production and food imports from other counters have been brought down inspite of rapid increase in population.

3. Improved seed-the principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable areas of production

The supply of god quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is one of the important contributions to secure higher crop yields.

What is natural pest and disease control?

Pests and diseases are part of the natural environmental system. In this system there is a balance between predators and pests. This is nature’s way of controlling populations. The creatures that we call pests and the organisms that cause disease only become ‘pest and diseases’ when their activities start to damage crops and affect yields.

If the natural environmental system is imbalanced then one population can become dominant because it is not being preyed upon. The aim of natural control is to restore a balance between pest and predator and to keep pests and diseases down to an acceptable level. The aim is not to eradicate them altogether, as they also have a role to play in the natural system.

Once a pest or disease has started to attack a crop, the damage cannot be repaired and control becomes increasingly difficult. Where possible, use techniques to avoid or prevent pest and disease attack in the first place.

Significance in Agriculture

The Green Revolution resulted in many fold increase in the food grain production. Crop yields have increased steadily over time, but continuing these increases above the current high levels would be difficult. But in order to meet the demands of the increasing population, the crop production must increase in a sustainable manner. Sustainable increase in the total production without increasing cultivated area represents a huge challenge that can only be met by integrative investigations at the whole plant-plant community level. Improvement of crop production systems will require a thorough understanding of basic principles of yield production. This involves the study of the plant processes responsible for the growth, development and production of economic yield by crop plants, focusing on whole plants and plant communities and not individual plant parts, organs, or cells because most of the processes that control yield operate at the whole plant-plant community level.

The processes responsible for the primary productivity of crop communities are photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, nutrient utilization and how the products of these processes are converted to economic yield and morphogenetic processes.

Crop physiology is the study of plants at the whole-plant and plant-community level of organization and Agronomy is the study of crops and cropping systems at the farm level over a period of time. At this level of organization, the complexity of the system is so large that comprehensive attempts are to be made to examine the mechanisms underlying the crop responses to management or climate.

The scientific approach to agriculture has been to isolate (i.e., the experiments in which everything else is equal except the studied phenomenon) and to reduce (i.e., the process by which, a phenomenon is quantified in terms of one or more essential molecular processes), because the production system is too complex. Whereas the unraveling of crop production systems to simple chemical and physical phenomena has improved our general understanding of the system, it is necessary to understand how these chemical and physically processes interact within a whole plant grown from seed to maturity under natural conditions for this information to be useful in agronomy.

Definition

Plant breeding can be defined as an art, a science, and technology of improving the genetic makeup of plants in relation to their economic use for the mankind.

OR

Plant breeding is the art and science of improving the heredity of plants for the benefit of mankind.

OR

Plant breeding deals with the genetic improvement of crop plants also known as science of crop improvement.

OR

Science of changing and improving the heredity of plants

India is the second largest producer of fruits with a total production of 81.0 million tons from 6.98 million ha in 2012-13. The leading states in terms of area and production are:

THE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT

An agro-ecosystem is a site of agricultural production farm, for example- understood as an ecosystem. The agro-ecosystem concept provides a framework with which to analyze food production systems as wholes, including their complex sets of inputs and outputs and the interconnection of their component parts.

Because the concept of the agro-ecosystem is based on ecological principles and our understanding of natural ecosystems, the first topic of discussion in this chapter is the ecosystem. We examine the structural aspects of ecosystems their parts and the relationships among the parts and then turn to their functional aspects how ecosystems work. Agro-ecosystems are then described in terms of how they compare, structurally and functionally, with natural ecosystems.

Structure of Natural Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a functional system of complementary relations between living organisms and their environment, delimited by arbitrarily chosen boundaries, which in space and time appear to maintain a steady yet dynamic equilibrium. An ecosystem thus has physical parts with particular relationshipsthe structure of the system that together take part in dynamic processes the function of the system.

The most basic structural components of ecosystems are biotic factors, living organisms that interact in the environment, and abiotic factors, nonliving physical and chemical components of the environment such as soil, light, moisture and temperature.

Definition and Concept Agro-Forestry

Agro forestry is an age-old practice of integrating farming with practices, preferably on the same unit of land on sustainable basis. Agro forestry systems have received increasing emphasis in the recent years because of their potential to yield fodder, fuel wood and small timber in addition of food. Shortage of fuel woods for construction and commercial purpose. Implementation of development activities like mining, quarrying and river valley projects are the other reason for deforestation. Shifting cultivation, which is practices in the North-Eastern zone of India, has also affected forest acreage.

Definition: The practices of including trees in crop or animal production agroecosystem. Agro forestry may be defined as an integrated self- sustained land management systems, which involves deliberate introduction / retention of woody components with agriculture crops including pasture / live stock, simultaneous or sequentially on the same unit land, meting the ecological and socio -economic needs of people. Or Agro forestry is a collective name of land use system and technologies where woody perennials are deliberately used form the same land management units as agricultural crops and or animals in the same form of spatial arrangement of temporal sequence. In agro-forestry systems, there is both ecological and economic interaction between different components.

Introduction

The word ‘Statistics’ is probably derived from the Latin word ‘status’ (means a political state) or the Italian word ‘statista’ or the German word ‘statistik’, each of which means a ‘political state’. It is used in singular as well as in plural sense. In singular sense, statistics is used as a subject that deals with the principles and methods employed in collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. In plural sense, statistics is considered as numerical description of quantitative information.

Statistics (Definition), Scope and Limitations

Different persons defined Statistics in different ways. Some of the popular definitions of Statistics are given below.

According to Croxton and Cowden, “Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data”.

According to Sir R.A. Fisher “The science of Statistics is essentially a branch of applied mathematics and may be regarded as mathematics applied to observational data”.

Fisher’s definition is most exact in the sense that it covers all aspects and fields of Statistics. On the basis of above ideas, Statistics can be defined as a science which deals with collection, presentation, analysis of data and interpretation of results.

Meaning, Concept & Definition of Education

1. “Education is the process of developing capabilities of the individuals so that they can adequately respond to their situations”.

2. The modern definition of Education- “It is the production of desirable changes in human behavior- in knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them”.

3. Education is the process of giving training and instruction to people to develop their knowledge, abilities, skills, character and mental powers.

Knowledge: It includes-facts, concepts, principles and relationship.

For example: Extension worker educates a farmer on cultivation practices in sweet corn. (Things known)

Attitude: An attitude can be loosely defined as a feeling towards some object, person, and situation or idea. For Example

Extension worker changes the negative attitude of a women farmer and makes them adopt Mushroom cultivation. (things felt)

Skills: Ability to do things.

For example: Extension worker improves skills of a cotton farmer on stem application of pesticide (things done)

‘Importance of Agriculture in National Perspective in India

Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy: The following points emphasize the importance of agriculture in Indian Economy. Indian is an agricultural country, where 70 per cent population is dependent on agriculture. This forms the main source of income. The contribution of agriculture in the national income in India is more, hence, it is said that agriculture in India is a backbone of Indian Economy. The importance of agriculture in the National Economy is explained by the following points.

Role of agriculture in Indian economy: Agriculture is the main sector of Indian economy which is amply powered by the following points:

Share in National Income: The contribution from agriculture has been continuously falling from 55.1% in 1950-51 to 37.6% in 1981-82 & further to 18.5% in 2006-07 and 14.2% in 2011-12 and now 13.1%. But agriculture still continues to be the main sector because it provides livelihood to a majority of the people. The share of the agricultural sector’s capital formation in GDP declined from 2.2% in the late 1999s to 1.9% at precent.

Introduction

The dairy sector is one of the most important food sectors, which introduced the physical, chemical, microbiological and sensorial criteria duringprocessing steps and in the final dairy products. Several agents/ingredients of non-dairy origin are commonly used to maintain the quality of milk and milk products during processing, transportation and storage. In general, such ingredients are known as food additives and it can be antioxidants, coloring agents, flavoring compounds, preservatives(naturals and synthetic),artificialsweeteners, vitamins, minerals, stabilizers, emulsifiers and curing agents. From the safety point of view, some toxic agents can come into contact of dairy products duringmilking, storage or processing; such as fungal toxins, heavy metals, antibiotics or radionuclide’s, etc., which need to be identified and processed accordingly. Although addition of food additives in food/dairy product is controlled under country specific food laws or Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), few dairyproducts such as butter and unflavored fermented milk products are highly restricted for food additives.

Introduction

Spectacular accomplishment in every sector has enabled India to be amongtop achieving nations. However, every section of the society is not benefited by these achievements and problem of malnutrition still remains unresolved. Malnutrition is a common problem faced by underdeveloped and developing countries suchas Philippines, Nepal, Sudan,Tanzaniaand Indiasincelongback. Malnutrition includes undernutrition(wasting,stunting,underweight),inadequate vitamins or minerals as well as overweight, obesity and resulting diet-related non communicable diseases(NCDs). As per the latest report of World Health Organization, 52 million children under 5 years of ageare wasted, 17 million are severely wasted and 155 million are stunted, while 41 million are overweight or obese (WHO, 2018). More than 50% women of marriage age are suffering from anemia. If women are malnourished at the time of pregnancyand delivery, the babybornface theproblems such asphysical retardation,sensitive tocommon infections, reduced cognitive abilities, reducedmental development, etc. As per the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, starting from the date of conceiving a child, the first 1000 days are a critical window from nutrition point ofview.Unfortunately, inseveral regions of developingcountries includingIndia, neither the mother nor the babyis provided with the right quantity and qualityof food during this window period. Therefore, it is important for the policymakers to identifymalnutrition at an earlystage for timelyplanningand implementation of various intervention strategies at the community, village, and district level. NitiAyog, Government of India (GoI) (previously known as Planning Commission), in an effort to eliminate malnutrition,regularlyplans several short and longtermnutritionalprogrammesand policies.In thischapter,we willdiscuss some of these policies launched since independence and their impact in combatingmalnutrition.

Introduction

There are manypeople all over the world who have a certain level of sensitivity or intolerance towards milk and milk products. The reactions to milk which involve the immune systemare termed as milkallergy, whereas, difficulty in the digestion of the milk and milk products is known as milk intolerance. Milk intolerance occurs due to malabsorption of milk sugar (lactose) in intestine, a condition in which lactose is not digested into its monomers (galactose and glucose) due to lower activity or insufficiency of lactase enzyme. Inability to digest lactose, which is a disaccharide present only in milk, is specifically known as lactose intolerance. However, hypersensitivity involves the adverse immune reaction(allergic reaction) inthe body causeddue to the ingestion of milk proteins. Milk and milk products are major source of basic as well as essential nutrients and cannot be skipped from the diet of the individual. It is a rich source of calcium,which is essential for the growth and reformationof bones. The decline in calcium may lead to thin, fragile bones that break easily, a condition called osteomalacia or osteoporosis in women. Thus, it is a matter of concern for both children andadults whoare allergic or intolerant towards milk and milk products and not getting enough calcium and other nutrients in diet. This chapter would provide more insight about milk intolerance and milk allergy/hypersensitivity and how to deal with it.

Introduction

Digestion may be defined as the hydrolytic process carried out by various enzymes for breaking down complex food components such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates into simpler molecules like amino acids, fatty acids and monosaccharides, respectively. Whereas, absorption may be defined as the movement ofthese simple soluble digested food componentsalongwithvitamins, minerals and water from gastrointestinal track into the circulatory system.

The process of digestion starts from oral cavity (mouth) and ends at large intestineincluding tongue, teeth, jaws,secretions from salivaryglands (parotids, sub maxillary or submandibular and sublingual glands), pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and digestive enzymes secreted from pancreas and liver.

Introduction

Nutritive value of any food indicates the calories content as well as quality attributes. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins provide energy by4-9-4 rule. It meanstheyprovide 4,9 and 4 kcal/genergy, respectively, when oxidized completely. Though micronutrientssuch as vitaminsandminerals do not provide any calories, they are essential for the enzymatic activity and metabolic reactions.

ATP or energy is measured in terms of ‘calories’ or ‘joule’. One calorie is the amount of heat required by 1g of water to increase its temperature from 14.5 to 15.5°C under standard conditions. Nutritive value of any food can be measured on shelf usingcalorimeter, in which food is completelyoxidized under specified conditions and converted into CO₂ and water.

Introduction

Nutrition is the fundamental pillar of life and an essential foundation of human and national development. Rightfrom the earliest stage of human development, the fetal stage, at birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, nutrition forms the basis for survival, performance, mental and physical development & economic and social development.Nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy, fetal and early postnatal life can have a negative impact not only on the subsequent growth and development but can also lead to changes in metabolic regulation and homeostasis.