eChapters

Abstract

Soil acidity poses a great problem for crop production due to very poor fertility status and nutrient imbalances in eastern and north eastern region and hence, it needs a special attention to address such acidity problems in relation to crop production. The integrated nutrient management system for the maintenance of soil fertility, sustainable agricultural productivity and improving profitability through the judicious and efficient use of mineral fertilizers especially secondary and micronutrients, organic matters, green manures, bio-fertilizers in acid soils. Rainwater harvesting, efficient storage of excess rainwater and subsequent uses as supplemental irrigation especially in the areas of rainfed situations as well as selection of crops and cropping systems in different acid soils region need to be developed. The management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils can be made either by the addition of cost-effective lime or liming materials to counteract the abnormalities of soils by raising pH as the first step and subsequently by modifying agricultural practices and applying balanced fertilizers including limiting nutrients viz. S, B, Mo and Zn at optimal levels based on soil test values for maximum crop production.

Abstract

Never ending additional need of farmers have forced them to grow more cash crop along with crops used for the staple food. The prime crops as per the food habit, social need has to be produced in the respective locality. The micro planning for agricultural and food production has to be planned for different blocks of a district to meet above needs. The production planning has to be simulated first and programmed for trial production. After successful trail, the same has to be replicated in larger area. Mathematical model development approach is one of the solutions to predict the need of the people and plan production depending on the availability of the input materials like natural resources and other inputs. In addition to this food and nutrient security for the people living in those different areas are very important in present context. Global population is growing fast with 1.2% per annum. Feeding these people increases the responsibility of farmers for growing more crops without considering the soil health. Improper crop sequencing has resulted in imbalance in soil nutrient which results in unsustainable production of forth coming crops. 

Abstract
 
The climate is one of the main determinants of agricultural production. At present, climate change has been appeared as a tremendous global crisis and modern agriculture is responsible for anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) which are important causing factors.  The ill effects of global warming and climate change have been reflected adversely in agriculture causing threat to food productivity and security. Thus there is an urgent need for adoption of ecologically sound and economically viable farming practices to mitigate the adverse effects of global warming as well as climate change. Organic agriculture is one of the most prominent and widely practiced ecologically sound farming systems and it might be a suitable option as it is based on the principles of ‘care, health, ecology and fairness’ with the capability to reduce emission of GHGs. Moreover, organic agriculture provides several gains like contribution to the conservation of biological diversity and animal welfare, supply of local products of natural origin, reduction of fossils fuel energy and protection of the environment from pollution with chemicals, carbon sequestration and restoration of soil fertility, assurance to agricultural sustainability, and thus ensuring food security to ever growing population of the world.

Abstract

More than 73% of its total population lives in rural areas and depends primarily on agriculture for livelihood. The performance of agriculture determines food and nutrition security which is important for reducing poverty and achieving sustainable growth. Production and productivity has increased manifold and yields of major crops like paddy, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables have more than trebled in the last four decades. The impressive long term growth in agriculture helped in taking the state out of famines and serious food shortages into one of the food surplus states and ensuring food, nutrition and livelihood security. The state is characterized by wide diversity and considerable spatio-temporal variations in growth and productivity. In fact, agriculture isincreasing with public investment in infrastructure including irrigation, establishing appropriate farming systems, developing suitable and affordable technologies and crop varieties, augmenting credit delivery and designing region and crop-specific plans. In this backdrop, a study was conducted to document the indigenous and organic farming technologies in selected communities of the state in tribal dominant Gajapati district of Odisha intended to help the farmers to be aware of their own innovative technologies for weakening balances on the environment due to intensive use of fertilizers and agrochemicals. 

Abstract 

The district Murshidabad lies within the Younger Deltaic Plain and the Bhagirathi Recent Surface has been considered as the severe flood affected district of West Bengal state, India. Murshidabad is highlighted one in terms of occurrence of flood due to its typical geographic location and diverse geomorphological characteristics. The district witnessed frequent floods because of high intensity of rain fall in the basin area of Bhairavi-Jalangi-sealmari rivers. Inflow of flood water from Ganga-Padma in high spate condition further aggravates the congestion of drainage. Lack of proper drainage is also responsible for flood in the upstream side in the western part as well as beyond the Berhampur town. Flood management may be undertaken through physical and socio-economic measures, which includes the scientific control of reservoirs; construction of new barrages, improvement of river channels, removal of human encroachment along river side, timely flood warning and forecasting, preparedness of essential services along with proper flood plain planning are indispensable. Addressing of socio-economic problems may help to combat the flood situation in an effective way.

Abstract
 
The word “sustain” is derived from the Latin verb ‘sustinere’(to keep in existence or maintain) and implies long-term support or permanence. The accepted definition of sustainable agriculture has proved to be elusive, given the extraordinary diversity and complexity of agricultural land use, and the perspective taken including producers, consumers, policy makers and workforces. Sustainable agriculture is defined as ‘the ability of farmland to produce food grain and other agricultural products to satisfy human needs indefinitely as well as having sustainable impacts on the broader environment and maintained equilibrium in productivity level’. That in other words, requires agriculture to avoid severe or irreversible damage to the endogenous or external ecosystem services upon which it depends, notably soil fertility, irrigation water, genetic variability and pollinating agencies and have acceptable impacts on the broader environment under the environmental stewardship.

Abstract

‘Women Empowerment’ has been now an important phrase of discussion for the social scientists. The concept of ‘Empowerment’ was firstly highlighted by the Political Scientists. Undoubtedly, effective utilization of human potentials and realization of knowledge about him/herself are believed to be the most critical capabilities of individuals. Probably this is the root of ‘Empowerment’. The term ‘Women Empowerment’ symbolizes women’s realization about their potentials. On the other hand, SHG approach intends to highlight towards unfolding the potentials of women through group approach, enabling them to help themselves by their own capacity. In spite of this, the condition of women SHGs is in doldrums. This might be quite difficult to generalize the whole scenario. The study is a modest endeavor to revisit women SHGs (developed by NGOs) of East Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand. Of the various factors attributed to tribal socio-economic lives of family based farmers, gender role is considered as the important factor. Tribal women in almost all walks of life are sharing responsibilities in domestic as well as economic sector.The study is based on Ex- post facto research design. The methods of data collection were quantitative and qualitative in nature and were aimed to seek answers to certain research questions. Participatory Rural Appraisal and FGD are being the dominant methods.

Abstract

Biological drainage relies on vegetation, rather than engineering mechanisms to remove excess soil water through evapo-transpiration. It is often considered attractive because it requires only an initial investment in site development (planting of a “bio-drainage crop”) and (potentially) returns a benefit when the bio-crop is harvested for fodder, wood or fibre. Presently about one-third of the world’s irrigated area faces the threat of waterlogging. Considering long-term viability of bio-drainage, the systems would be subjected to the same scrutiny as other plant-based biological systems with regards to nutrient and salt-balance and soil considerations. Moreover, large-scale adoption of bio-drainage crops could include considerable tracts of land and socio-economic considerations.

Abstract

Sundarban is the largest mangrove wetland ecosystems in the world. This World Heritage site along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 square kilometres of which about 1,700 square kilometres is occupied by water bodies in the form of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres, which together form the complex ecosystem of this Ganges delta.. Rivers in the Sundarbans are confluence points of salt water and freshwater. Environmental crisis is caused by severe cyclones sea level rise and storm surge followed by coastal erosion, flood and earthquake phenomenon. River water is saline. Shallow aquifer is brackish/ saline, which is not suitable for drinking. Fresh potable ground water is occurring in deeper aquifer, the exploitation of which is not cost-effective. Sundarbans houses around 500 different species of mammals, fish, bird and reptiles and it is the largest habitat of royal Bengal tigers. Conservation of flora and fauna in the typical ecosystem of Sundarbans in India with emphasis on judicious use of ground water resources along with retrospection of historical trend and future sustainable management strategies is a pre-requisite.

Abstract

The effect of watershed management programme was studied with introduction of new crop-cultivars including six rainy season crops namely direct seeded rice (drilled rice), transplanted rice, arhar, groundnut, sesamum and maize and two winter season crops namely mustard and wheat. The crop demonstration programme were undertaken for consecutive four years during 1988 to 1991 to utilize different land situations and for effective use of created irrigation potential at a drought prone tract of West Bengal (India). The results of the crop demonstration revealed that with selection of crops and its suitable varieties, adopting improved agronomic practices including scientific management of fertilizers and irrigation water, plant protection measures, the productivity of both land and crops markedly increased. The crop production strategy on the basis of land capability classification changed the land use, cropping pattern and crop intensity in the watershed area.

Abstract 

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world . India ranks 1st among the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) & value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production & offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified .Scarcity of water resources and growing ofm competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scare area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient & effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving ,irrigation method, deficit irrigation, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system etc) and agronomic & soil manipulation (seed priming\ seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. 

Abstract

The increase incidence of plant diseases have created challenging troubles in commercial agriculture and posed economical threats to both conventional and organic farming systems. To combat these problems there has been indiscriminate use of the synthetic chemicals that created different types of environmental and toxicological problems. Therefore attention has been directed towards exploitation of plant products or phytoextracts as novel chemotherapeutants in plant protection. Numerous botanical pesticides have been used globally and more has been discovered in due course of time. Pyrethroids, neem, etc are well established commercially as botanical pesticides and recently some essential oils of higher plants have also been used as antimicrobials as they are safe and widely accepted by the consumers. Use of phytoextracts may thus offer a new source of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral agents against microorganisms. Botanical pesticides are best fitting for organic food production in industrialized countries and can plays greater role in the production and post-harvest protection of food products in developing countries.

Abstract
 
Rice fallows are those land which remain uncultivated during rabi after harvesting of kharif paddy. Several reason for not taking second crops such as early withdrawal of monsoon rains leading to soil moisture stress at planting time of rabi crops, water logging and excessive moisture in the months of November and December, lack of appropriate varieties of winter crops for late planting, and socio-economic problems like stray cattle, blue bulls etc. India accounts for 11.65 million ha (79%) of the total rice fallows of South Asia. The rice fallows offer good scope for area expansion of chickpea. The residual soil moisture left in the soil after rice harvest is often sufficient to grow chickpea in low to medium land soil. It is also beneficial for chickpea where short duration paddy grown which vacate fields in September-October. In long duration paddy, chickpea could be grown under Utera cultivation (relay cropping) in the states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Assam. Optimum plant population can only be ensuring in well levelled land, sufficient soil moisture and good seed under Paira (Utera) cropping. 

Abstract

Jute is known as golden fibre of Bengal and the most important bast fibre of the world. Jute is a natural fibre crop and is second in the world after cotton in terms of global production, consumption and availability. It is a completely biodegradable, recyclable and eco-friendly lingo-cellulose fibre. The genus Corchorus belongs to the family Tiliaceae, which is composed of approximately 100 species. Two species (Corchorus capsularis L. and Corchorus olitorius L.) are widely cultivated for natural fibre. The field experiment was conducted in Pre-Kharif season of 2014 in Mondouri Research Farm, of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal. This farm is located very close to the tropic of cancer having approximately 89º E longitudes, 23 º N latitude and about 9.75 in altitude above the sea level. The experiment was in a Factorial Randomized Block Design replicated thrice with first factor variety i.e. V1-JRC 321, V2- JRC 698, V3- JRCJ 2 and V4-NDJC 2011 and Second factor fertilizers with three levels i.e. F1-60:13:25, F2-80:17.5: 33.3 and F3- 100:21.8:41.7. The plant height was not significant at the harvest stage. 

Abstract
 
The field experiment was conducted during rabi season at the Baruipur Research Farm of the Calcutta University using treatments as T1-NPK 100%, T2- Compost 100%, T3- Compost 50%+NPK 50%, T4-Vermicompost. 100%, T5- Vermicompost 50%+NPK 50%, T6-FYM 100%, T7-FYM 50%+NPK 50%, in a Randomised Block Design (RBD) replicated thrice.  The results show that the amount of available N content in soil  has been found to be increased with the progress of crop growth upto 45 days of crop growth and thereafter, the amount of the same decreased with the crop growth irrespective of treatments. The amount of P content in soil has been found to be increased with different treatments, being maintained highest amount (18.30 kg/ha) in the treatment Vermicompost 50%+ NPK50% followed by the treatment where 100% NPK and 100 % vermicompost were applied. The results show that the amount of K content in soil was increased initially and thereafter, the amount of the same decreased with the progress of crop growth.

Abstract

From very ancient time the farming was practiced organically without using any chemical pesticides or fertilizers. In the mid-19th century, the chemical farming was introduced and the adverse impact of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture is in sight with deterioration of soil quality, quality of food and so on.The indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals in different crops causes numerous health hazards as well. In this context, organic farming came into existence in 20th century due mainly to produce quality foods through the rapid change in agriculture sector. Therefore, an attempt was taken through present investigation to cultivate potato without using any synthetic agro-chemicals by employing Kufri Pukhraj cultivar during kharif season. Potato is basically rabi season crop but due to climatic advantages of the south Chhotanagpurplateau of Jharkhand it can successfully grow during kharif season too.

Abstract 

The on-farm programme on SRI was carried out in the village Narayanpur under RLI command area in Karimpur II Block of Nadia district in the year 2016 during summer season. The soil of farmland is clay loam and situated having latitude of 23°54’26.5"Nlongitude 88°30’24.1"Eat an average elevation of 9.75 m above the mean sea level. Monsoon ceases during October and cool season sets in by November. The average rainfall of this region is about 1500 mm and normal monsoon breaks in the first week of June. Though water resources in this area are generally satisfactory and 90% of these resources are tapped form the ground water source through deep and shallow tube wells. However, due to faulty crop planning and lack of scientific water management approach, a significant portion of agricultural area is identified as gray zone from hydrological point of view. Even many tube wells are becoming dry due to over exploitation of valuable water from the lower depths of confined aquifers. Rice is predominant crop during kharif season becoming less profitable because of high input costs involved. Summer rice gave satisfactory yield but also profitable proposition because of more input cost and less farm gate prices.  

Abstract

In view of the fast depletion of ground water reserves, uncertainty of rains and growing food demands due to human population explosion, efficient use of water available for crops has become highly relevant. In recent years, the use of superabsorbent polymers (saps) has been viewed as an innovative tool to improve water use efficiency in agricultural operations. Pusa Hydrogel, an indigenous superabsorbent hydrogel technology, has been developed for improving water use efficiency of agricultural and horticultural crops. They can absorb a minimum of 400 times of their dry weight of pure water and gradually release it according to the needs of the crop plant. So, it is used as soil moisture conservator and reduces number of irrigation. Because of their neutral ph, they do not affect nutrient availability, soil chemical composition, action of other agro chemicals, viz. fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, etc. Pusa hydrogels are found to improve the physical properties of soils. Increase in porosity results in improvement in seed germination and rate of seedling emergence, root growth and density, and reduced soil erosion due to reduction in soil compaction. It also increases biological/microbial activities in the soil, which increase oxygen/air and nutrient availability in root zone of the plant. So, ultimately it is helpful for increasing crop productivity. 

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted in an aericendoaquept (pH, 6.67; organic carbon,  CEC,) to study the relative efficiency of different organic manures on the changes in some selected soil properties growing rape (cv. B-9) in a randomised block design replicated thrice using different combinations of organic and inorganic chemical fertilizers (T1- NPK 100%, T2- Compost 100%, T3- Compost 50% + NPK 50%, T4- Vermicompost 100%, T5- Vermicompost 50% + NPK 50%, T6- FYM 100% and T7- FYM 50% + NPK 50%). However, the objectives of the study was to assess the relative efficiency of organic manures with respect to availability of nutrients in relation to yield of rape affected by combined application of organic manures and chemical fertilizers. The results show that the amount of available N, organic carbon content, CEC and K contents were found highest in the treatment T5 where Vermicompost 50% + NPK 50% was applied combinedly.

Abstract 

A field investigation entitled, “Studies on growth and yield of aerobic rice in summer season under various moisture regimes and planting techniques in upland condition” was carried out at Regional Research Station, Gayeshpur, Nadia, West Bengal of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya. The field experiment was laid out in a split plot design with three replications. The treatment consisted of three irrigation regimes in main plots viz., IW/CPE =1.0, IW/CPE =1.5 and IW/CPE = 2.0 and four treatments on planting techniques in sub plots viz., P1: Sprouted seeds, P2: Non-sprouted seed, P3: Soaking seeds overnight (12 hrs), P4: Soaking seeds overnight (12 hrs) followed by shade drying.

Abstract

Chhotanagpur plateau is well-known for its quality vegetable production, however, indiscriminate uses of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in different vegetables lead to more yields but of their inferior quality of produces. The over uses of agro-chemicals also drastically affect the soil bio-physico-chemical properties. In this context, an alternative approach was taken into account through present study in order to address such problems. For the purpose, cabbage cv. Golden Acre was grown in organic experimental plots of the university by using ‘Sasyagavya liquid organic formulation’ to observe its effects over the crop and soil bio-chemical properties of the experimental site.Theexperiment was designed after CRBDby adoptingseven treatments i.e.T1: 1% Sasyagavya; T2: 5% Sasyagavya; T3: 10% Sasyagavya; T4: 15% Sasyagavya; T5: 20% Sasyagavya; T6: 25% Sasyagavya and T7: Absolute Control withtheir three replications. Different growth, yield and quality attributes of the crop and soil bio-chemical properties of the experimental soils were studied. 

Abstract

Modern agriculture has disturbed the age-old balance of host-pathogen system resulting diseases occur at regular interval leading to enormous loss to the agricultural production, which is estimated to be 10-25% or less during normal years but may extend up to 100 % during epidemic. Broadly, there are two breeding approaches adopted for disease resistance which includes conventional and molecular one. Conventional approach includes pureline, pedigree, backcross, recurrent selection and interspecific hybrids through which various resistant varieties has been developed. However, after sometime there is sudden outbreak of diseases due to continuous sowing of these varieties which results in the advancement in molecular biology and with the discovery of trait linked markers it paved a new pathway to look a new corner to develop varieties which are disease resistant. Molecular approach consists of gene pyramiding through which two or more genes providing resistance to different types of diseases is introgressed in a particular variety, gene deployment and multiline varieties which consists of heterogeneous population formed by mixing the cultivars to differ in the ability of disease resistance and reduces the rate of epidemic development. With the help of makers in marker assisted breeding using foreground, recombinant and background selection several linked markers are identified which provides resistance against disease like in wheat stem rust, leaf rust etc.

Introduction

With the change in global scenario there is increase in pressure of meeting the food requirements of rapid growing population but due to scarcity of resources it is becoming very difficult to meet the needs of present population but even if there is so much problem still nature has provided solution to sort out from it through hybrid seed production through male sterility. As male sterility is a condition in which pollen grain is either absent or non-functional in the pollen grain. Its first case was reported by Koelreuter in 1763. Later many scientist have reported about its role in hybrid seed production. Mainly the male sterility is characterized by malformation of androecium, lack of normal anther sac, inability of pollen to mature or to release from the anther sac and inability to develop normal microspore or pollen. Due to such malformation male sterility is characterized into phenotypic male sterility, genotypic male sterility and chemically induced male sterility. Later in 1998, Kaul further generalised the phenotypic male sterility into structural, sporogenous and functional male sterility. In case of structural male sterility stamens are completely absent or if present then it is either malformed or modified into other floral part. While in case of sporogenous male sterility a case of abnormal microsporogenesis has been reported. In functional male sterility pollen development is normal but its function is impaired.Genotypic male sterility which is further classified into genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.

Introduction

Agriculture is one of the promising sectors which offers marvelous potential for sustainable growth and play a key role in the economy of the country. Many of the foods that are already common in our diet are obtained from plant varieties that were developed using conventional genetic techniques of breeding and selection. Increase in the world population and limited food supply strained researchers to introduce and advance agriculture management and modern technologies along with conventional practices to attain highest possible crop productivity. Agricultural technology is based on the domestication of wild plants to create the crops that we have come to depend upon. Humans invented agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago when they began to harvest and cultivate specific plants to produce food. The improved plant traits selected by early agriculturalists were transmitted genetically to succeeding generations of plants. Both public institutions and private companies are now involved in crop genetic improvement.

Abstract

Abiotic stresses have been a serious challenge for sustainable agriculture particularly vegetable cultivation characterized by decreased endurance against stresses like drought, temperature fluctuation and salinity. In India, drought and salinity being major abiotic stresses affect an area of 16% and 4.28%, respectively. Plant Breeders have to face many impediments while developing stress tolerant varieties. Developing tolerant varieties is quite difficult as tolerance varies with the developmental stages and has complex inheritance. This can be understood well by studying ontogeny of plants. Drought varies in time of occurrence, severity and duration. Field screening for tolerance is very difficult because of various interactions like drought × high temperature, high temperature × salinity interactions etc. Artificial screening in different stresses could be an alternative approach. The varieties developed with higher inputs at research stations fail to perform at farmers’ fields due to high genotype × environment interactions. Cultivated species have less genetic variability for abiotic stress tolerance but tolerance can be enhanced by using diverse and heterogeneous population. Though wild species possess genes for tolerance but these genes are closely linked with the undesirable gene(s) e.g. in tomato where S. cheesmanii, S. peruvianum, S. pimpinellifolium and S. sitiens have undesirable traits which affect yield and quality adversely.

Abstract

Brassica vegetables belonging to family Brassicaceae are one of the most important groups of cool season vegetables. Initially, these crops were confined to Europe and other temperate regions. But, after the Second World War, their cultivation has spread to tropics and sub tropics as well. All the members of this group have originated primarily from the common ancestor wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. oleracea) and are fully cross-compatible with each other. In general, these are highly cross pollinated crops and have shown preponderance of non-additive gene action for most of the economic traits thereby suggesting the relevance of heterosis breeding. In the absence of appropriate genetic mechanism for the production of hybrid seed with ease at relatively lower cost, heterosis in a crop is of no practical value. Fortunately, the presence of natural genetic phenomenon of sporophytic self incompatibility and male sterility (particularly CMS) in brassica vegetables has proved instrumental in commercialization of hybrid seed production.

Introduction

India is a rich center of plant diversity due to varied climatic conditions as well as soil qualities which provide a better platform for the diverse plant groups. In India around 45000 plant species are spread over the area (Mayers, 1988). These plant species multiply and produces the new plant. The multiplication of plants is termed as propagation and the art of propagation is as old as civilization of human being. The history of civilization began with the propagation and growing of plants. Plant propagation was in practice in pre-historic period. However, the propagation process has got commercial popularity only recently. The success in plant propagation depends on a thorough knowledge of the growth of plants, choice of suitable method and technical skill. In nature, plants multiply naturally to perpetuate themselves. Now-a-days, propagation practices have been totally modernized and became advanced from field to in vitro. Variation in plant propagation can be observed in the nature like some plants are producing many seeds for future generation with their unique type of dispersal mechanism. Among a large

Abstract

A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees and shrubs, which are also technically perennials. in vitro technologies are continuously expanding in the field of biology. Plant tissue culture has become a general title for a very broad subject. Commercial use of micropropagation is still limited, because of its relatively high production cost resulting mainly from high labor costs, low growth rate in vitro, and poor survival rate of the plantlets during acclimatization. Micropropagation of woody perennials is essential due their importance in production of secondary metabolites, which are playing a vital role now a days. Stages of micropropagation i.e mother plant selection, establishment of the aseptic culture, multiplication, root regeneration and transfer to the natural environment, which are systematically reproduced in many protocols which will aids in micropropagation studies of many woody perennials. Thus the review of present study attempts to provide a comprehensive account on micropropagation of woody perennials complementing conventional programmes for improvement.

Abstract

Plant research often involves growing new plants in a controlled environment. These may be plants that we have genetically altered in some way or may be plants of which we need many copies all exactly alike. These things can be accomplished through tissue culture of small tissue pieces from the plant of interest. The latest list of ISO recognizes 109 spices, but only a few are important commercially such as black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, large cardamom, cumin, coriander, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, saffron and celery. They are extensively used in flavouring food and confectionery, perfumery and soaps and also as colouring materials. Many of these groups of crops have medicinal properties and are used in many Ayurvedic and Unani medicines. Inspite of the rich diversity and importance, the productivity of spices is low in India. Spices are an important group of economic plants with large genetic diversity in the Indian subcontinent and need to be conserved through in- vitro methods. Conservation of the germplasm using traditional method of field maintenance is problematic, normally labour intensive and also face risk of germplasm loss due to pest/pathogen attack or natural disasters. To minimize the problems of their conservation and increasing interest has been shown to use plant tissue culture. In vitro conservation of germplasm has been reported in various crop species including the spices black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, large cardamom.

Introduction

Healthy seeds and seedlings are the first and essential requirement for achieving full yield potential of any vegetable crop. In recent years, vegetable growers have become highly conscious of the importance of quality seeds or seedlings. A major portion of the area under vegetable cultivation in India is now sown with hybrid seeds, which are costly but give higher yields and quality produce. In view of the high cost of seeds, some vegetable crops like tomato, brinjal, capsicum and cucurbits are being transplanted after growing nursery under protected conditions to achieve maximum germination count and healthy plant establishment. Raising of seedlings in plug trays or portrays is one such technology that achieves the above requirement. This technology is fast emerging as agro enterprise in India for its obvious advantage to both the nursery grower and the farmer. Soil-less substrate consisting of coco-peat and vermiculite is filled in plug trays and one seed is manually placed in each cell of the plug tray. However, manual seeding is labour-intensive operation requiring about more labour and time consuming. Mechanized precision seeding of plug trays is, therefore, necessary to enhance the capacity of rapidly growing nursery industry in India.

Introduction

Controlled perpetuation of plants is known as plant propagation. Plant propagation can be broadly classified in two types: sexual and asexual. In sexual propagation, the fusion of male and female gametes gives rise to a new plant, whereas in asexual propagation which is also known as vegetative propagation, the development of new plants takes place without the fusion of male and female gametes, that is, the new plant develops from vegetative plant parts. Various techniques of asexual propagation are adopted in plant propagation, such as: grafting, budding, layering, cutting, etc. So far cutting and layering are concerned; the new plants are developed on their own root system, but in grafting and budding on the others’ root system. It means that in these two techniques (grafting and budding), two plant parts are joined to form new plants; the one which forms the root system is known as rootstock and the one forming the shoot system is known as scion. Plant propagation is both a science and an art. The science of plant propagation requires knowledge of plant physiology, nursery cultural practices, and characteristics of the particular plant that you want to grow. The art of plant propagation cannot be taught in a book or classroom, however, because it consists of specific technical skills that must be acquired through innate ability or experience and often requires a certain feel.

Introduction : Need to Change

During the era of Green Revolution, India remarkably achieved self-sufficiency in food production with the introduction of high-yielding varieties, extension in the irrigated cultivable land, high use of chemical fertilizer such as Urea and other sources of NPK fertilizers and increase in cropping intensity.During these processes, relative contribution of organic manures as a source of plant nutrients declined substantially. Due to heavy application of chemical pesticides an increase in resistance of insect pests has also been noticed for most of the regular used plant protection chemicals. Health hazards associated with intensive modern agriculture, such as pesticides residues in food products and groundwater contamination are matter of concern. In the progress of green revolution technologies and chemical dependent nutrient management has declined the overall productive capacity of the soil due to no judicious fertilizer use. Such concerns and problems faced by modern-day agriculture gave birth to new concepts in farming, such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, donothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. The essential feature of such farming practices imply, i.e., back to nature.

Abstract

Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones. Organic fruit production essentially excludes the use of many inputs associated with modern farming, most notably synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. Organic agriculture, the innovative farming system can build-on and enhance the traditional knowledge and practices of local and indigenous communities. Indigenous Knowledge can be broadly defined as the knowledge that anindigenous (local) community accumulates over generations of living in a particular environment. ITK in fruit production is important for reducing the cost of cultivation, reducing the pollution and also the natural resource base. It is very important to understand these age old practices to address the local problems and to document it before is vanished away.

Introduction

India is bestowed with wide range of climate and physic-geographical conditions and as such is most suitable for growing various kinds of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices and plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and cocoa). Its horticulture production has increased significantly over the last two decades and as per the final estimates, by 2013-14, it has increased to about three times (2.87) since 1991-92 and to about twice (1.90) compared to the production in 2001-02. This has placed India among the foremost countries in horticulture production, just next to China. As per National Horticulture Database 2014, during 2013-14, India’s contribution in the world production of fruits & vegetables was 13.6% & 14%, respectively. Total production of fruits during 2013-14 was about 89 million tonnes while that of vegetables was 163 million tonnes.

Abstract

Importance of organic sources of nutrients was recognized in current scenario in order to get higher yield without disturbing soil health. In this context integrated use of inorganic and organic sources of nutrients in crop production is becoming very crucial for assurance of food security on sustainable basis, which in turn not only improve the soil fertility for sustained crop productivity but also to reduce the cost of inorganic fertilizers. Among the various organic sources humic acid plays a major role in the sustainable production of vegetables. Humic acid is a natural bio-stimulant that is derived from leonardite and is among the most concentrated organic material available today. Humic acid is an organic chemical produced by decaying plants and animals residues by a process called Humification. Humic acid is not only increases the yield but also improves the soil fertility, soil productivity, soil structure and texture, promoting plant growth and resistance against various pests, diseases. In this context use of humic acid as organic sources of nutrients in crop production is becoming very crucial for assurance of food security, sustainability and improving soil health.

Abstract

India is primarily agrarian country and this sector provides livelihood to a major part of the population. The indiscriminate use of agro chemicals since green revolution resulted in adverse effect on the soil fertility; crop productivity; quality of produce and more specifically on the environment system. Organic cultivation is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost, and biofertilizers which helps to maintain soil productivity. Organic farming excludes or strictly limits the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (herbicide, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives, antibiotics and genetically modified organisms. Thus, the importance of organic sources of nutrients was recognized in current scenario in order to get higher yield without disturbing soil health. In this context integrated use of inorganic and organic sources of nutrients in crop production is becoming very crucial for assurance of food security on sustainable basis, which in turn not only improve the soil fertility for sustained crop productivity but also to reduce the cost of inorganic fertilizers.

Introduction

Earth was a beautiful landscape but man has ruthlessly exploited for his greed specially, in the last century. With rapid industrialization and random urbanization environmental pollution has become a serious problem. Over exploitation of open spaces, ever-increasing number of automobiles and demographic pressure has further aggravated the problem.
 
According to The Hindu, on December 1, 2015 a blanket of smog surrounded Beijing, China, later this smog covered one tenth of China’s area. This situation was recently seen in Delhi, after diwali. It was reported that suspended particulate matter (SPM) content in the air was 14-16 times higher than the permissible limits. So, one of the ways to mitigate this pollution is plating of trees and shrubs as green corridors for abatement of pollution and improvement of environment is an effective way.

Introduction

Any kind of garden established on the roof top of building is known as roof garden, which provides the opportunity to cultivate the quality vegetables, fruits and flowers in home. In this system plants and grasses are grown on a nutrition medium placed above a waterproof membrane. Roof gardening is mostly adopted in urban areas. It uses for decorative benefit, roof plantings make available food, manage temperature, hydrological remuneration, architectural improvement, habitats  for wildlife, frivolous opportunities, and in large scale it may even have ecological benefits (Louise, 2009). This considerably increases human health as adding organic cultivation.

Abstract

Beekeeping is an agro-based activity which is being undertaken by farmers/landless labours in rural area as an integrated framing practice. It supplements income & employment generation and nutritional intake. Honeybees have been offering services to the society through ensured pollination in crops and providing honey and a variety of other bee hive products viz.; royal jelly, pollen, propolis, bee wax, bee venom, etc. Honey Bees have their vital role in sustaining plants bio-diversity resulting in environmental stability. Mainly five species of honeybees viz.; Apis cerana, A. mellifera, A. florea, A. dorsata, Stingless bees are in used in India.  Beekeeping industry has quadruple benefits: 1) providing self employment to rural and forest based population; 2) production of honey, pollen and beeswax, venom, royal jelly, etc., 3) providing employment to rural educated youths in collecting, processing and marketing of bee/beehive-products; and 4) cross-pollination of various agricultural and horticultural crops and improving their quality and increasing yields.

Introduction

Farming and agriculture are respectively defined as the practice of cultivating the land or raising stock and the production of agricultural goods through the growing of plants and the raising of domesticated animals. In the developing countries frantic efforts have been made through research and enlightenment campaigns to encourage farming and thus ensure significant increases in agricultural production in order to feed and sustain the population that is increasing at geometric proportion. At present, the farmers concentrate mainly on crop production which is subjected to a high degree of uncertainty in income and employment to the farmers. In this context, it is imperative to evolve suitable strategy for augmenting the income of a farm.

We are entering an era when certain environmental conditions will exert a degree of concern which has never been before encountered by man in the course of human history.

The survival of human beings depends on the realisation that they have to live in harmony with the various elements of the environment which are interconnected.
    
(i)     An understanding of the components and processes which takes place in the environment.
    
(ii)     The relationship between different abiotic and biotic components and the assessment of resources with reference to needs of people in a region is essential for their survival.
    
(iii)     A reduction in rate of growth of population in developing countries and a reduction in consumption of resources by developed countries would lead to a balance between population and resources. In this manner, the awareness of the problems faced by environment would enable people to take appropriate decisions. This makes the earth habitable for future generations.

“Natural” means an ecosystem not influenced by man and resources means that reserve stock of supply which living things can take from nature for sustenance of life. In reference to man, natural resources can be defined as those natural reserve stocks of supply which man utilizes for his sustenance and welfare. The reservoirs of natural resources are the sun,  the  atmosphere,  the  lithosphere  and the  hydrosphere.  Natural resources include energy, air, water, soil, minerals, plants and animals. The nature of resource depends upon many factors such as scientific and technological development of the society, profession of that particular society, and culture.

Conservation has always been one of the most important applications of ecology.Unfortunately, the term “conservation” suggest “hoarding”, as if the idea were simply to ration static supplies so that there would be some left for the future. In the eye of the general public the “conservationist” is too often presumed to be an antisocial person who is against any kind of “development”. What the real conservationist is  against  is unplanned  development  that breaks  ecological  as  well as human laws. The true aim of conservation, is two fold–
    
(1)     To ensure the  preservation of a  quality  environment that considers esthetic and recreational as well as product needs; and  
    
(2)     To ensure as continuous yield of useful plants, animals and materials by establishing a balanced cycle of harvest and renewal.

Any living organism in its natural habitat is called a wildlife. It may be plant animal or a microbe. The significance of wild life lies in setting up the balance of population in nature by maintaining food chains and food webs. It acts as the gene banks in relation to breeding of plants and animals for introduction of desirable characters such as high yield of economic product and resistance to diseases. The scientists are performing studies to screen and select useful genes in economically important organisms.

Air is one of the most important constituents of man’s environment. It is calculated that a roan breathes about 22,000 times a day inhaling about 16 kg of air by weight. Air is present everywhere and its entrance from one place to another cannot be checked. Clean and pure air is very essential for the health and survival of man.

The ‘greenhouse effect’ earns its name from the rough similarity between the way it works and the way the glass of a greenhouse works. Glass too, is transparent to short-wave radiation but opaque to long-wave radiation, so the greenhouse traps heat.
Carbon dioxide plays a critical role in controlling the Earth’s climate because as an aerosol it absorbs and reflects or scatters incoming radiation on the one hand and absorbs and reradiates outgoing infrared radiation on the other. This latter phenomenon results in what is popularly called the Greenhouse Effect, an analogy to what happens in a greenhouse.

El Nino is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. When this warming occurs the usual upwelling of cold, nutrient rich deep ocean water is significantly reduced. El Nino normally occurs around Christmas and lasts usually for a few weeks to a few months. Sometimes an extremely warm event can develop that lasts for much longer time periods. In the 1990s, strong El Ninos developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995, and from fall 1997 to spring 1998.

The ozone layer is a region in the Earth’s stratosphere where a certain amount of incoming solar radiation is absorbed. Over the last twenty years or so a series of man-made threats to it have been reported and each has been treated  with more gravity than the last. Now a-days such threats feature  regularly on the agendas of international conferences.

Ozone, Positive and Negative : Ozone, or trimolecular oxygen (O3) can be advantageous or exert harmful influence on human health, as well as that of other organisms. It is all depends on whether it is present in the troposphere or stratosphere (Fig. 8.1). In the stratosphere, ozone is a beneficial serving as a shield in screening out most of the damaging portions of ultraviolet radiation which have wavelengths between 290 and 320 nanometers. In the troposphere, ozone is a negative as it appears as a component of smog with a number of deleterious effects, as will be discussed below.

Water is indispensable for our life. About 2/3 of earth is covered with water. No organism can survive without water. So keeping water free from any pollutant is very important. Water is said to be  “polluted” when it is hanged in its quality and composition directly or indirectly by man’s activity so that it becomes less suitable for drinking, domestic, agricultural or any other purpose. Polluted water transmits a large number of diseases in man. They are cholera, typhoid, dysentery, jaundice and other bacterial or viral diseases.  Water becomes polluted by the presence or addition on inorganic or organic substances or biological agents. Soil erosion, leaching of minerals from rocks, decaying of organic matter are natural sources of water pollution. There has been an alarming increase in the degradation of water quality in the recent past in the large cities and industrial areas.

Water pollution can be studied under the following heads—  (i) medium in which it occurs (surface water, ground water); (ii) habitat (lakes, estuaries and open seas); and (iii) type of pollutants (bacterial, metallic, thermal and radioactive).

Soil pollution happens when we destroy the thin layer of healthy and productive soil, which covers the earth’s surface. Most of the world’s food is produced using this resource and if we don’t protect it the world’s farmers will be unable to grow enough food to support the worlds people.
 
Healthy soil depends on bacteria, fungi, and small animals (such as worms) to break down wastes in the soil and release its nutrients which help plants grow. The over use of fertilizers and pesticides can limit the ability of soil organisms to process wastes, which in turn makes the soil less productive or in the worst case scenario useless or even poisonous.