eChapters

5.1 Introduction

Evanescent field absorption spectroscopy is a powerful well-established laboratory technique for chemical analysis. The technique utilizes the evanescent wave penetration at the boundary between two dielectric media in conditions of attenuated total reflection (ATR). One of the media, a thin slab-shaped non-absorbing crystal, is called a waveguide, while the other medium of lower refractive index is the absorbing sample being studied. At each reflection at the boundary of the crystal and the sample, the penetration of the evanescent wave of the guided ray into the absorbing sample gives rise to a reduction of the power propagating in the crystal. The degree of absorption depends on the amplitude of the evanescent field in the sample medium and the number of reflections within the waveguide. The former increases dramatically for incident angles approaching the crystal-sample critical angle while the latter increases with the decrease in the thickness of the waveguide. The number of reflections can also be increased by increasing the length of the waveguide. Thus, to achieve maximum absorption, an unclad optical fiber is well suited for evanescent wave absorption spectroscopy. This is because, unlike the crystal waveguide, the narrow core diameter of the fiber provides a large number of reflections per unit length. Further, the use of an optical fiber to transmit light to a section of its core in contact with an absorbing sample offers the possibility of remote sensing or in-line analysis. These advantages, together with the benefits of simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost have motivated a number of research groups all over the world to investigate evanescent wave spectroscopy at the surface of an unclad optical fiber. This chapter will be devoted to the fiber optic sensors utilizing evanescent field absorption spectroscopy.

4.1 Introduction

Apart from an optical source, the optical detector is another important component of the optical fiber sensor. The optical detector converts the optical signal to an electrical one. The signal is then processed either to record or display. There are various kinds of optical detectors but the commonly used in sensors are semiconductor diodes. In some of the cases photomultiplier tube has been used. In this chapter we shall describe the basic principles of optical detectors and their operational characteristics.

3.1 Introduction

Optical sources are a key element in many fiber optic systems. This component converts the electrical signal into a corresponding light signal that can be injected into the fiber. Several factors such as wavelength, source output and spectral bandwidth are important when selecting light source to achieve the best performance of the sensor. The optical sources used for sensors range from hot filament lamps to semiconductor lasers. These sources can be placed into two groups - incoherent and coherent sources. The tungsten lamp and light-emitting diode (LED) are some of the incoherent sources while the lasers come in the category of coherent sources. The LED is normally preferred if the multimode fiber is used for the sensor. If the optical power requirement is high then the laser with multimode optical fiber is used. For the sensors based on interference phenomenon, coherent sources with single mode fibers are used. In the case of distributed sensing, short pulse high power lasers are used. In a laboratory demonstration experiment, a visible laser such as a simple He-Ne laser may be the preferred source while in commercial applications a compact and rugged source such as laser diode or an LED is preferred. Before using the source it is very essential to know its maximum power output, wavelength of emission, linewidth, radiation pattern and modulation bandwidth. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the physics of some of the light sources and their important operating characteristics that are used in sensors.

2.1 Introduction

In a fiber optic sensor the heart of the sensor is an optical fiber. An optical fiber in its simplest form is a cylindrical symmetric structure consisting of a central ‘core’ glass/plastic of uniform refractive index and of diameter 4-600 µm. It is surrounded by a ‘cladding’ glass/plastic of slightly lower refractive index. To provide the mechanical and environmental protection to the fiber, the cladding is covered with an external plastic coating (seeFig. 2.1). The light in the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from the core-cladding interface. The design of the fiber optic sensor depends critically on the choice of optical fiber. Telecommunication fibers are inexpensive but may not be the right choice for sensors. Some of the fiber optic sensors dictate the use of application-specific optical fibers. In this chapter we shall first describe ray analysis for the light propagation in the fiber. The modes propagation, numerical aperture of the fiber, fiber characteristics and different kinds of optical fibers used for sensing will be described later.

1.1 Introduction

Since 1990s optoelectronics and fiber optics technology underwent significant advances due to innovations in the telecommunications, semiconductor and consumer electronics sectors. The developments of compact disk (CD) players, laser printers and the high performance and reliable optical fiber communication are the result of these advances. The optical fiber sensor technology is a direct outgrowth of the revolutions taken place in optoelectronics and fiber optic communication industries. Many of the components associated with these industries are used for optical fiber sensor applications. In the beginning the main hurdle in the development of sensors was the cost of components such as optical sources and detectors. With the time, components prices are falling and the improvements in fiber, laser and photodetector technology have taken place. It is expected that as the time progresses the optical fiber sensors will replace the conventional devices for the measurements of various physical, chemical and biological parameters such as rotation, acceleration, electric and magnetic fields, temperature, pressure, acoustics, vibration, position, strain, humidity, viscosity, pH, glucose, heavy metals, gases, viral infection, pollutants etc.

Globally livestock sector is changing rapidly in response to globalization and increasing demand for quality foods of animal origin. Animal husbandry is the backbone of rural economy of our country. The value of output from livestock sector is about 29 percent of the total value of output (GDP) of the agriculture and allied sectors. The livestock sector has been contributing over 5% to total GDP. India ranks first in milk production which accounts for more than 15 percent of total world output and 40 percent of Asia’s total production. It continues to grow at about 4 percent per annum far exceeding the global average of 1-2 percent. Further, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gobar gas from the dung is used as fuel for domestic purposes. The surplus fodder and agricultural by-products are gainfully utilized for feeding the animals. Almost all draught power for farm operations and transportation is supplied by bullocks. Indian animal husbandry practices are based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony. This principle also holds good for organic farming. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people (NOSB, 1995). Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity.

The biotic component of earth is continuously and significantly affected by the abiotic components. Physical factors of the environment (temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind, solar radiation, light, atmospheric pressure, etc) surrounding the animal have influence on the production, reproduction and welfare of the animal. Livestock performance is best when environmental factors are optimum which is difficult to achieve due its variable nature. To this complex livestock-climate interaction, animal responds favorably by undergoing ‘adaptation’ or unfavorably by being under ‘stress’. Type and magnitude of stress due to physical environment depends on climatic factors of a particular area, animal adaptability, breed characteristics and managemental interventions by humans to minimize the losses. To understand the physical environment of livestock frequently used terms are mentioned below

Poultry sector in India has grown from a backyard activity into a major commercial activity in four and half decades. Poultry is one of the fastest growing subsectors of agricultural sector in India. Within the poultry sector, broiler production is growing faster than egg production and about 66.7% of the total output (in value term) comes from the poultry meat sector and only 33.3% from egg production (FAO, 2008). India ranks fifth in chicken and sixth in duck population. Presently, India is world’s third largest egg producer and the fifth major producer of chicken meat (FAO, 2010). Poultry is today the major source of meat in India. As per an estimate about 2 million people are employed, fully or partly, along the poultry value chain and that an increase in annual per caput availability of one egg or 50 gm or poultry meat generates about 20,000 to 25,000 full time jobs (Ciamarra & Otte, 2009). Distribution of chicken and duck population as well as poultry meat and egg production among different regions, countries of the world and among different Indian states has been already discussed in chapter one of this book.

Origin and Distribution of Camel

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus of the family Camelidae bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as “humps” on its back. There are two species of camel, viz. Camelus dromedarius (single humped dromedary) having habitat in dry hot arid lands of Africa and Asia, and Camelus bacterianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands of Central palaerctic (a zoogeographical region consisting of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and most of Asia north of the Himalayas) region. Family Camelidae also includes other species which are camel like mammals. Those are Lama (Lama glama), Alpaca (Lama pacos), Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe). These four species are termed as new-world Camelidae having habitat in South America. The Indian camel belongs to Camelus dromedarius. A very small numbers of double-humped camels are also available in Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir.

Camel is an important component of desert eco-system. It is capable of traveling long distance in hot, arid and sandy regions carrying men, material and providing energy to agricultural operations. They provide milk, meat, hair and used as work animals. It is believed that Camels were domesticated during the period from 3000 to 2500 BC. Average life expectancy of a camel is 40-50 years. The height at the shoulder and hump of a fully grown adult camel is 1.85 and 2.15 metres, respectively. Camel can run at a speed of up to 65km/h for a short distance and can sustain a speed of up to 40km/h for long distance.

Equines are herbivorous monogastric animals. Though, simple-stomached, they can digest considerable amount of fibrous feed in the caecum and are called as hindgut fermenters. Equine includes horse, donkey, zebra and mule which are used as work and pack animal. All three species of equine belongs to the family Equidae. The scientific name of Horse and Donkey is Equus caballus and Equus asinus, respectively. The horse was probably last farm animal domesticated by the man. Horses appear to have been domesticated first in central Asia or Persia, more than 3000 years ago.

The group of animals constantly used in laboratories for general research in all discipline of science is called as laboratory animals. Commonly, it includes rats, mice, rabbits and guinea pigs. However, under certain circumstances, additional animal species like hamsters, non-human primates, amphibians, fowl, sheep and pigs can also be included. This term incorporates traditional laboratory animals, farm animals, wildlife and aquatic animals. Nontraditional animals, inclusive of invertebrate species are also included where they are relevant to the unit’s mission. Generally, these animals come under vertebrate but broadly laboratory animals may be classified in two major groups i.e. laboratory mammals and non-mammalian laboratory animals. The laboratory mammals include mouse, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, cat, dog, ferret, gerbil, bats, hamster, mink and monkey (Rhesus). Beside these mammalians the large domestic animals/livestock are also used as laboratory animals (horse, cow, sheep, goat etc) for fulfilling the demands of various laboratories. Poultry is also used as non-mammalian laboratory animals and Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) chicks are at utmost demand for production and testing of biologicals. The other non-mammalian laboratory animals includes reptiles (tortoise, lizzards and snakes), insects (cockroach, drosophila, house fly, house cricket, locusts, tsetse fly, stablefly etc) pisces (fishes and snails) and amphibians (toad and frog). Laboratory animals have been used extensively for basic research in drug and bacteria screening, toxicology, antibiotic sensitivity testing, animal models of diseases and production/testing of biologicals. Laboratory mammals are also valuable for diagnosis of infectious diseases in man and domestic animals. In this chapter the most commonly used laboratory animals i.e. mice, rats, guinea pigs and rabbits will be discussed.

Origin and Domestication of Pigs

Pigs are nonruminant, even-toed ungulates and belong to suborder Suina which includes hippopotamuses, peccaries and pigs. All true pigs are members of the family Suidae which includes five living genera namely Sus, Babirousa (babyrusa), Hylochoerus (giant forest hog), Phacochoerus (warthog), and Potamochoerus (bushpig and red river hog) that can be called as pigs. European breeds are believed to be descendants of the European wild pig Sus scrofa and Asiatic or oriental breeds originated from the Eastern Asiatic banded pig, Sus vittatus a successor of Sus crystatus.

Origin and Domestication of Sheep

The domesticated sheep belongs to phylum-Chordata, class-Mammalia, order- Artiodactyla, family - Bovidae, sub-family - Caprinae, genus - Ovis and species- aries. They are hollow horned, cloven-hoofed ruminants of relatively smaller size. Sheep plays an important role in Indian agrarian economy as it is having multi facet utilities like meat, wool, skin, manure and to some extent milk and transport also. Marginal and sub-marginal lands of arid and semi-arid tropics are well adapted by sheep. Among the different wild species, Asiatic (Ovis orientalis) species of mouflon is considered to be the ancestor of present day sheep. Sheep were domesticated by man at around 9000 BC. The reference of role of sheep in the economy of mankind is found in the history of civilization of Mesopotamia, Mohen-jo-Daro and Harappa in Northern India.

Origin and Domestication of Goat

Goat is a cloven-hoofed, hollow-horned ruminant which is comparatively smaller in size and belongs to class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae and genus either Capra (2N=60) or Hemitragus/tahrs (2N=48). The distinction between these two genera was previously based on horn structure but the distinction has been confirmed genetically. The domestic goat (Capra hircus/Capra aegagrus hircus) belongs to the genus Capra and has possibly developed from five wild ancestors. On the basis of available information, it is most likely that bezoar is the main ancestor of most domestic goats. However, there is slight likelihood that Markhor has been involved in the parentage of some of the Indian goat breeds.

Evolutionary biology indicates that domestication of goats started during Neolithic age and it was perhaps the first ruminant and first animal after dog to be domesticated by the man around 9000-7000 BC. Domestication was associated with three of the oldest civilizations namely- (i) the Nile in northeast Africa, (ii) the Tigris-Euphrates in west Asia, and (iii) the Indus in the Indian subcontinent. Archaeologists indicate that the goat was first domesticated in the “Fertile Crescent” (landmass which extends between the Black and Caspian seas along the coast of Palestine and forms arc like a quarter moon towards the Persian Gulf) of the eastern Mediterranean. Since their domestication, goats remained associated with variety of functions in various aspects of human life including food, employment, economics, folklore and religion.

Origin & Distribution of Cattle

All types of domestic cattle belongs to class Mammalia, subclass Ungulata, order Artiodactyla, suborder Ruminantia, family Bovidae, subfamily Bovinae, tribe Bovini, which includes genus Bos. The aurochs or urus (Bos primigenius) is the probable ancestor of most of the present day Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle. The humped Bos primigenius namadicus were the forerunner of today’s zebu cattle while humpless Bos primigenius primigenius gave rise to modern European cattle. Both category of cattle possess the same number of chromosomes (2N=60). Other related animals in the Bovini tribe include the gaur cattle (Bos gaurus), banteng (Bos banteng), kouprey (Bos sauveli) of South and East Asia, bison (Bison bison) of North America, European bison (Bison bonasus) and the yak (Poephagus mutus) of central Asia. According to Payne & Hodges (1997), domestication of aurochs (Bos primigenius ) took place first probably on the lower mountain slopes in the region of western Asia known as the ‘fertile crescent’. They suggested that the first domestic cattle were humpless (Bos taurus) Hamitic Longhorn type and were domesticated around possibly 9000 BP (years before the present i.e. 1950). About 2000 years later the humpless (Bos taurus) shorthorn type evolved or was developed in the region and these two types of humpless cattle are believed to the ancestor of Bos taurus. Humped (Bos indicus) zebu cattle were domesticated in the northwest arid areas of the Fertile Crescent around c. 5000 BP.

Functions of Livestock Housing

The most important purpose of livestock production is to increase the conversion efficiency of feed energy into the livestock products like milk, eggs, meat, wool, hair, hides and skins, draught power and manure (fertilizer). Scientific housing of livestock is necessary in order to get higher productivity from them. A proper housing design/structure should alter/modify the micro-climate inside the house so that animals are least exposed to the extremes of climatic conditions. Moreover, it should also provide better control of diseases & parasites, desirable working conditions for farm staff & better living conditions for the animals, better integration of various routine farm practices, opportunity for higher labour efficiency at farm, protection from predators & thieves, opportunity to express species specific natural behavior patterns and it must not compromise the welfare of the animals. Some of these functions are discussed in subsequent sub-headings.

Livestock farming is an integral part of Indian agriculture system and vital source of livelihood particularly in the rural areas of the country. This sector has been the primary source of energy for agricultural operations (for land preparation, sowing, pulling bullock carts etc.) and major source of animal protein (mutton, chevon, chicken, pork, beef, eggs etc.) for majority of population. India has been habitate of major draught, milch and dual-purpose breeds of cattle as well as buffaloes. Besides their potential our indigenous as well as crossbred animals are unable to produce maximum output due to unavailability of adequate and nutritious feed and fodder throughout the year. The quantity and quality of forage production is directly proportional to the livestock health, production and productivity. There is colossal gap between demand and supply of good quality nutritious fodder. Besides, the availability of lesser area under cultivated fodder crops, the grazing lands also becoming smaller due to the degradation of the land, urbanization, industrial development and increased area under food production to fulfil the demand of increasing human population. To meet the nutritional requirement of such a huge population of indigenous, crossbreds as well as genetically upgraded animals, proper management and conservation of fodder and grasslands is necessary.

Animal Genetic Resources

Agricultural biodiversity is the product of thousand years of activity during which humans have sought to meet their needs in a wide range of climatic and ecological conditions. Well adapted livestock have been an essential element of agricultural production systems. For livestock keepers, animal genetic diversity is a resource to be drawn upon to select stocks and develop new breeds. More broadly, genetically diverse livestock populations provide society with a greater range of options to meet future demands, so the wise management of the world’s agricultural biodiversity is becoming an ever greater challenge for the international community. The livestock sector in particular is undergoing dramatic changes as large-scale production expands in response to surging demand for meat, milk and eggs (FAO, 2008).

Animal genetic resources (AnGR) include all animal species, breeds and strains that are of economic, scientific and cultural interest to humankind in terms of food and agricultural production for the present or the future. Domesticated animals are considered to be those species that are bred in captivity and modified from their wild ancestors to make them more useful to humans, who control their reproduction (breeding), care (shelter, protection against predators) and food supply (Diamond, 2002; Mignon-Grasteau, 2005). Only about 40 animal species have been domesticated since the Pleistocene. Common species include cattle, sheep, goat, chicken, duck, pig, horse, buffalo, rabbit, camel, donkey, elephants, various poultry species, reindeer, etc. All these AnGR are vital to the economic development of the majority of countries in the world playing an important role in the subsistence of many communities. Although only a subset of the diversity present in the ancestral species survived in the domestic counterparts, domestic livestock diversity has been continuously evolving.

Body Parts of Farm Animals

It is important to know about the various terms used to indicate different body parts of the animals so that whenever a description of the animal/body part is presented, one could specifically understand it. Some of the terms used to point out different body points of common livestock species have been shown in Figure 2.1.1-2.1.5. Terms which are more frequently used for different livestock species have been depicted in Table 2.1.1.

Taxonomic Classification of Common Livestock Species

A series of terms (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species etc) is used to denote the member of a kingdom and each division of the hierarchy contains one or more groups from the next lower division like subphyla, subclasses, suborders, subfamilies, or subgenera etc if required. Further, species may be subdivided into varieties, breeds, or strains. Domestic farm animals belong to either class Mammalia or Aves. The scientific name of an animal comprise of its genus and species names. The first letter of genus name is written in capital letter but not the species name. While writing the scientific name of an animal the genus and species names are underlined when handwritten and always italicized when printed. General characteristics and taxonomic arrangements of common domestic animals have been given below.

Kingdom : Animalia

Members of kingdom Animalia are multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs. Adult animals develop from embryos. Most animals ingest and digest their food in some kind of internal cavity.

The early history of laparoscopy is unknown to many surgeons, but Hippocrates (460-375 BC) in Greece was first to describe endoscopy). He made reference to a rectal speculum. Hippocrates also advised injecting a large quantity of air into the intestines through the anus in the case of intestinal obstruction. He also advocated the insertion of suppository that was 10 digits long. These descriptions suggest that Hippocrates was well aware of ileus with intestinal obstruction and thought of several possible etiologies, including faecal impaction, intussusception, and sigmoid volvulus. Moreover, Hippocrates treated these life-threatening conditions with minimally invasive approaches.

John William Harshberger codified ethnobotany as ‘the study of plants used by primitive and aboriginal people ‘in a popular lecture on 4 December 1895. Later it was published in the Botanical Gazette in 1896 and now he is regarded as “Father of Ethnobotany”. Subsequently, Walter Fewkes (1896) adopted the word ethnobotany after Harshberger for the title of a research paper. Another term ‘Arboriginal Botany’ coined by Steven Powers (1873- 1875) was in use for about two decades before Harsh Berger. In brief, “Ethnobotany is the study of interrelations between primitive human cultures and the plants and animals in its environment, which is regarded as the branch of ethnobiology”. There are some other definitions of ethnobotany by various authors:

Jones (1941) defined as “Ethnobotany is the study of interrelationship between man and vegetation”.

Faulks (1958) considered it as “The total relationship between man and vegetation” in his book entitled “An Introduction to Ethnobotany” It was the first book specially published on ethnobotany. Schultes (1962) explained as “Ethnobotany is the study of relationships which exist between people of a primitive society and their plant environment”. Gadgil and Vartak (1976) considered it as “Branch of economic botany which deals with the role of plants in life and culture of arboriginals and tribal people”. Alcorn (1984) states “It is the study of contextualized plant use”. Wickens (1990) defined ethnobotany as “The study of useful plants prior to their commercial exploitation and eventual domestication”. According to Ford 1994, ethnobotany is concerned with a wide range of interest of plants in cultural and ecological context as men in his edited book “The Nature and Status of Ethnobotany”. According to Martin 1995, ethnobotany is the part of ethnoecology, which concerns plants. Turner 1996 was given the appropriate definition “the science of people’s interaction with plants”. In context of Indian ethnobotany the first book published by Jain, S.K., 1981 entitled “Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany” and Dr. Jain (2001) defined ethnobotany as “It deals with the study of total natural and traditional interrelationship between man and plants and his environment”.

The basic equipment for performing laparoscopy includes the laparoscope and corresponding trocar and cannula, light source, gas insufflator and the Veress needle. Laparoscope applicable for use in the small animals (dog, goat, sheep and lab animals) ranges in diameter from 2.7 to 10 mm in diameter, however, a 5mm diameter telescope is suitable for most cases and 2.7mm may be required for toy breeds of dogs and lab animals. A 0 or 30 degree direction of vision provides the operator with a “normal’ field of view and has proven most useful. Authors are using a 5-mm diameter 30-degree field of view telescope for routine diagnostic laparoscopy. The 5-mm diameter is adequate for most all small animal procedures in animals of variable size. The 0-degree designation means that the telescope views the visual field directly in front of the telescope.

Acid soils are found in India in about 93 million hectares ( Table 1) and they occur in the Himalayan region, the great Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, peninsular plateau and uplands and the coastal plains including island eco-systems under varying environmental conditions of landscape, geology, climate and vegetation. Conditions which are conducive for the formation of acid soils, such as high rainfall coupled with high temperature encouraging intense weathering and loss of alkali and alkaline earth metals with a simultaneous accumulation of iron and aluminium hydroxy compounds or the formation of free acidic substances in the humid forest foot hill regions, exist in some region or other in almost all the states in India.  A soil with pH less than 7.0 is deemed as an acid soil (Soil Survey Staff,1951). However, for characterization and classification, acid soils may be defined as those having pH less than 5.5 in 1:1 water extract (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).

34. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

This chapter gives important and useful methods for measurement of seismic signals.

Firstly a brief introduction of seismic signals is given. The P waves, S waves and L-waves are discussed in short.

The old methods of measuring seismic signals like mechanical geophones are replaced by electronic geophones. The discussion includes Electromagnetic type, Reluctance type, Capacitive type and pressure type of basic geophones. New methods of damping are included. New Recently developed amplifiers and filters are also included. Development in oscillographic elements and cameras are discussed. Other information includes, the recently reported Array Technology and Space Technology for measurement of seismic signals.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

33. GEOTECTONICS

Introduction

Geotectonics is the branch of geology which deals with the structure and movements of the earth’s crust. It includes the study of large-scale features like mountain chains, mid-oceanic ridge and oceanic trenches. Investigation regarding the form, pattern and genesis of these, and other tectonic units have enabled geo-scientists to ascertain the important characteristics of earth’s crust and reconstructs its evolution and geological history.

27. STRIKE AND DIP

Outcrop : A part of the rock formation which crops out or exposed on the surface of the earth is called an outcrop.

The total area over which a particular rock unit occurs at the surface whether visibly exposed or not. The term outcrop is especially used for delination of such an area on a geological map.

Attitude : To study these outcrops their attitude help in better understanding the position of the bed on the ground surface or in field is attitude of a bed can be described with the help of two basic structural elements i.e. strike and dip.

24. IGNEOUS ROCKS

Introduction : Petros = rocks and logos = science

Petrology means the science of rocks. It deals with the mode of occurrence composition, classification and origin of rocks and their relation to geological processes and history of the earth.

Rocks can be studies in two ways : The study of rocks as specimens in the laboratory is called Petrography which places emphasis on the purely descriptive part from textural mineralogical and chemical point of view. Petrogenesis deals with the origin and processes of formation of rocks. Petrology is a broader term which includes both petrography and petrogenesis.

Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of magma, either underneath the earth’s surface or above the earth’s surface.

19. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Def : The minerals are naturally occurring solid bodies having definite chemical composition and certain atomic arrangement, and are formed by inorganic processes in the nature.

All the minerals possess certain physical properties which are considered as follows.

1.Characters depending upon light such as colour streak, luster, transparency, translucency, phosphorescence and fluorescence.

2.Characters depending upon certain senses such as taste, odour and feel.

3.Characters depending upon the atomic structure and state of aggregation such as form, hardness, tenacity, fracture, cleavage and surface tension effects.

On the basis of these three characteristics, the minerals are identified and distinguished.

9. WEATHERING

The general process of production of rock waste partly by mechanical breaking and partly by chemical decomposition is known as weathering. The resulting products of weathering accumulate in the same place from which they are derived and there is no transport involved in the process.

Agents and types of weathering : The agencies which are involved in the process of weathering are atmosphere, water and organisms. The whole process of weathering may be conveniently divided into two types : mechanical or physical weathering and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering involves those processes which bring about disintegration of rocks and minerals without any chemical activity. Chemical weathering involves various chemical processes which slowly decompose the rocks and minerals. In nature two processes are intimately associated and only under extreme conditions, they do occur as a separate entities. Mechanical weathering breaks down the rock creating more surface area and facilitates chemical weathering. Chemical weathering weakens the rock and makes it more susceptible to mechanical break down. Thus the two processes are always complementary to each other.

1. GEOLOGY

Geology : Earth Science

 Geo = Earth + Logos = Science

 Def : The science which investigates the history of the earth is known as geology.

 Following are the important branches of geology.

1.Coal Geology : it is related with natural gas, coal deposits and their formation.

2.Crystallography : includes the crystal and atomic structure of the mineral. 3. Drilling Technology : it is related with the cores, core logging and coorelation of the lithology.

4.Engineering Geology and Surveying : it is related with engineering aspects of the earth.

The manuscript was completed in February 2020. The book was supposed to be out in print form in April 2020. In between the pandemic changed the world. Obviously, world changing events can’t be left out of the book, particularly if the book is about the future of science, engineering, technology and humanity. I, therefore, requested the publisher of the book for the inclusion of a chapter COVID crisis and its impact on the future of the world. He readily agreed.

I am sincerely grateful to the publisher for allowing me to include issues relevant for the present book, as an additional chapter at the end of the book. The subject at the moment looks unending and it has so many dimensions. I have tried to cover them as briefly as possible, in the context of the book. In spite of the several difficulties due to this last minute inclusion the publisher has taken pains to include it. I am grateful to him for his gesture.

The pandemic of this proportion is expected to get the views/suggestions from equally large number of people. Everyone is eager to see the end of the pandemic. And everyone has realised that the world will be a much different place. Some people are hopeful that the problems will be resolved, of course using multi-dimensional approaches. Not many are sure of the time frame. There is also pessimism among common people. One of my aunt’s asks me - what kind of research we have been doing all these years that we can’t even face the challenges posed by a mere virus? Has the balloon of the technology busted by a miniscule virus? In this fluid time many questions are being asked, and as many answers are also emerging. It is a big issue. It is as big as that emerged after the Second World War. Some are calling it the ‘birth of a new power’.

“I think that there is far too much work done in the world,” writes Bertrand Russell in In Praise of Idleness. Rightly so, a workaholic is not necessarily a valued employee. Why we work, asks Barry Schwartz. Why for most of us work is monotonous and meaningless? Why we have twice as many “actively disengaged” workers in the world as there are “engaged” workers?

Do we work only for money? Some think, work is about pay and nothing more. It is true, people work for money, but not always. Many people work for the challenge, meaning, and engagement it brings. “The lesson here is that just how important material incentives are to people will depend on how the human workplace is structured. And if we structure it in keeping with the false idea that people work only for pay, we’ll create workplaces that make this false idea true,” writes Schwartz.

The way technology is evolving, and the way it is changing our ways of living, why should we not be optimistic about technology. But then optimism comes tagged with pessimism. We aim for unfathomable optimum optimism. Technology is like water. It finds its open spaces. If it fills the available spaces more than it should, there is flood.

Future engineers and technologists are expected to appreciate, more than before, the human dimensions of technology. They are expected to have a grasp of the global issues. There is a need to understand the nuances of working in a culturally diverse space. According to some experts, good engineering designs should not be deprived of the benefits of a broad spectrum of life experiences, as adequate familiarisation with societal demands is essential for practical technological literacy.

Future engineers need to be better equipped to deal with people of diverse backgrounds, such as from social sciences, management, and communication. Some of the grand challenges that are enlisted, from an engineer’s point of view, are environment protection, hunger, energy and controlling the spread of the diseases. We need developers of responsible technologies and products.

We need managers to manage things, and at the same time we need adequate number of things to manage. There is a need to build faith in the public that engineers and technologists are sensitive to their concerns. One of the biggest responsibilities of the engineers and technologists is to keep themselves updated about professional developments and practices.

Countries, not only want exceptional scientists and engineers, but also people who are temperamentally innovators, and think they fit into their country’s core values. Many would say, prepare young minds and nurture future innovators.

There is no better engineering than life.

What is life - is a perennial question. Life is defined in different ways depending upon who is defining it. Biologists define life using a list of characteristics, such as metabolism, evolution, homeostasis, constant transformation, genetic information, etc. Life has been defined as self-maintaining and self-producing systems. Physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1), argued that living organisms escape the destiny of disordered equilibrium because they are able to take up ‘orderliness’ from their environment. Philosophers have defined life from different angles. They say that life can only be understood fully from an ‘insider’ perspective.

Life is not a random collection of extinct molecules. It is a process of dynamic renewal; everything in life is constantly turning over and renewed. Life exists in diverse forms. Each form is specialised to survive and reproduce in its particular niche.

One understands life from one’s own perspective. For some, life is an ‘objects in flux’ that constantly exchanges matter with the environment. It is systematic material exchange into an organized body. Then there is a view that says that all living organisms deserve moral consideration. All living organisms, however, do not have equal moral significance; vertebrates, for various reasons, deserve more moral consideration than would bacteria or plants. Then there are myriad religious ways to define life. The simplest is “God created the world and all living organisms.” No further questions, accept or reject the hypothesis.

Progress of any nation is driven by human curiosity and ingenuity. Engineering is one profession that has shown humanity the ways to meet its needs. It made the forces of nature work for the good of mankind. The biggest challenge for engineering profession has been its integration with the human needs. Engineering transforms technical conscience into applied realities. On the one hand, engineers are not limited by technology, and on the other, they are worried about the risks to the environment, health, sustenance and safety.

Engineer is a composite; “He is not a scientist, he is not a mathematician, he is not a sociologist or a writer; but he may use the knowledge and techniques of any or all of these disciplines in solving engineering problems.” Engineering in the broadest sense, relates to the “development, acquisition and application of technical, scientific and mathematical knowledge about the understanding, design, development, invention, innovation and use of materials, machines, structures, systems and processes for specific purposes.” Engineer works under various constraints: nature, cost, safety, environment, ergonomics, reliability, manufacturability and maintainability, among others.

This is how Neil Armstrong described himself, “I am, and ever will be, a white- socks, pocket-protector, nerdy engineer — born under the second law of thermodynamics, steeped in the steam tables, in love with free-body diagrams, transformed by Laplace, and propelled by compressible flow.”

Science has individual, social, and institutional dimensions. Because of the social relevance of science, the dissemination of scientific information is crucial for its progress and contemporaneity. A scientist observes and then tries to make sense of that observation. She/he collects data, develops theories, uses hypothesis to understand and explain a thing, or a phenomenon, and then tries to find patterns emanating from her/his observations. Scientific knowledge keeps on changing.

Science is a blend of logic and imagination; therefore, there is always a possibility of disagreement and mismatch between them. A hypothesis is often untestable. Such untestable hypothesis are often rejected by the scientific community. “Science never pursues the illusory aim of making its answers final, or even probable. Its advance is, rather, towards the infinite yet attainable aim of ever discovering new, deeper, and more general problems, and of subjecting its ever tentative answers to ever renewed and ever more rigorous tests,” writes Karl Popper (1).

A scientist formulates, corrects, or discards the theories. The job of a scientist is to discriminate false idols from the real things. Science has built-in error correcting machinery, writes Carl Sagan (2). The error bars are insistent reminders to the fact that no knowledge is complete or perfect. It is used to exercise self-criticism. Each generation of scientists reduces the error bars a little. When we are self-indulgent and uncritical, when we confuse hopes with facts, we slide into pseudoscience and superstition. Sagan believed in maintaining an essential balance between the two attitudes: openness to new ideas, no matter how counter-intuitive they may be, and the most ruthlessly sceptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new.

Neural suitcase determines the size of our world.

We think. We imagine. We generate ideas. We make sense of things. We take decisions. We observe patterns, and then try to understand their significance. Our neural suitcase does all this. It tells us the tales of many minds (1). The tales are beautiful, vulnerable, quiet, chaotic, real, fictional, wise, foolish, friendly, hateful, meaningful, and blind. Our neural suitcase builds castles in the air. It determines the size of our world.

Executive summary

The enclosed project report envisages the setting up of a modern rice mill complex with attached parboiling facilities having an average processing capacity of 16 MT of paddy per day. The initial investment of the project is estimated to be Rs 480.17 lakhs. Sales Realization is assumed as constant for all the 7 years; amounted Rs 1129.2 lakhs. Pay Back Period for the project is estimated as somewhat more than 3 years. Internal Rate of Return for the project is 31%. Net Present Value is Rs.367.92 lakhs which is a positive value. It indicates that present value of cash inflows is greater than present value of cash outflows. Projected working results of the project throws light on its viability.

Once you have embarked upon the idea of doing (any) business, your concentration should be focused on doing things that should be relevant to maximizing returns and minimizing risks. Looking upon why businesses fail, one can find that it is usually because entrepreneurs are ill equipped to identify real business opportunities and take advantage of them, or they don’t anticipate and adapt critical changes or they fail to recognize or minimize real threats to business. Successful entrepreneurs are found to intensively pursue the path of planning by preparing business plans, for having foresight of critical incidents that would affect business and possible ways of action.

Introduction

Successful marketing is important to every business. Marketing is a critical tool for establishing awareness, attracting new customers and building lasting relationships. It is the process of planning and executing conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of your ideas, goods or services to satisfy the needs of individual consumers or organisations. It is as important to put adequate efforts on marketing your product or service, no matter whatever time you have dedicated to development of part of it.

We live in an electronic era, where the globe has shriveled into our fingertips. Customers are having lot of options to choose from. Information of what you need is reaching you within a click, that your decisions are often being guided by such information. Marketing uses communication and advertising tactics to persuade customers that your brand, including your products and services are exactly what they need. Marketing is thus crucial to your business which can have a bearing on the success rate and requires research, planning and appropriate budget allocations.

One of the important concepts in marketing is that of marketing mix. The elements of this mix are: product, pricing, physical distribution and promotion. Marketing management is that which optimizes the elements in the marketing mix, so that organisation is able to achieve its objectives while gaining customer utility. This chapter throws light on various aspects of marketing mix that an entrepreneur needs to focus upon to ensure success.

Introduction

Meat is a highly nutritious animal product relished by majority of the population in India. India produced around 6.2 million MT of meat in 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013), standing at fifth position in world meat production and accounts for only 3 per cent of total meat production in the world (APEDA, 2017). Contribution of livestock sector to national economy in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) was 4.1 per cent in 2012-13 (Islam et al., 2016). The percentage of meat subjected to processing in India is only 1-2 per cent compared to 70 per cent in developed countries (Sen et al., 2013). Relatively higher proportion of poultry (7-8%) is converted into further processed poultry products. Major proportion of the meat produced in the country is derived from old and unproductive animals. Availability of spent birds is also on the rise due to the rapid growth in poultry industry. Meat from such animals and poultry has less desirable palatability attributes, especially tenderness, which makes it more suitable for processing into value added products. This will provide consumers with more acceptable, convenient, healthy and versatile products while simultaneously increasing the economic returns to the processor. The profitability of meat industry is critically dependent in deriving extra value from lower-value meat cuts. To achieve this, value must be added in the eyes of the consumer across the wide chain of value added products.

Introduction

Fish is a source of valuable animal protein and is considered a health food. This has resulted in increased consumer demand. Fish is now more expensive than meat and other animal foods. Being a highly perishable commodity, fish require immediate processing and various options are available for the value addition of fish. Fish processing, particularly seafood processing and marketing have become highly complex and competitive and exporters are trying to process more value added products to increase their profitability. Value can be added to fish and fishery products according to the requirements of different markets. These products range from live fish and shellfish to ready to serve convenience products. In general, value added food products are raw or pre-processed commodities whose value has been increased through the addition of ingredients or processes that make them more attractive to the buyer and/or more readily usable by the consumer.

Introduction

Consumption of milk is deeply rooted in our traditions, and it is an inevitable part of the Indian diet and even has ritualistic and medicinal uses. Milk is the first and one among the most nutritious foods that every mammal consumes on earth. It supplies all the nutrients needed to ensure proper growth and development in the postnatal period. Dairy foods in general are commonly considered balanced and nutritive, being frequently included as important components of a healthy diet (Pereira, 2014). Four components of milk are dominant in quantitative terms: water, fat, protein and lactose; while the minor components are minerals, enzymes, vitamins, and dissolved gases (Guetouache et al., 2014). On an average, bovine milk is composed of 87% water, 4 to 5% lactose, 3% protein, 3 to 4% fat, 0.8% minerals, and 0.1% vitamins. Milk and milk products contribute not only nourishment to the consumers, but also livelihood opportunities to farmers, processors, shopkeepers and other stakeholders in the dairy value chain.

Introduction

India is the largest consumer and second largest producer of sugar in the world next to Brazil. Among the sugar yielding crops like sugarcane, sugar beet, palms and sorghum, sugarcane is the second most important agro-industrial crop of the country. It is the only raw material for nearly 538 sugar mills (2014-15), producing about 28 million mt of sugar annually from a sugarcane production of 366 million tons in an area of 5.307 mh. Apart from this, it is the predominant source of potable alcohol, industrial alcohol and fuel-ethanol. In India, 35 million farmers are engaged in sugarcane cultivation and another 50 million depend on employment generated by these 538 sugar factories and other related industries using sugar. Sugarcane occupies a very prominent position in the agricultural crops of India covering large areas in UP, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar (sub tropical) and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (tropical). On an average, white sugar production accounts for 74% of total cane produced, 14-15% is utilized for jaggery and khandsari production and the rest is utilized for other purposes including seed.

Jaggery and khandsari, the traditional Indian sweeteners are the natural mixture of sugar and molasses. If pure clarified sugarcane juice is boiled, what is left as solid is jaggery, which contains 65-85% sucrose. Khandsari sugar is a finely granulated and crystallized which contains 94 to 98% sucrose. In the early 1930’s, nearly 2/3rd of sugarcane production was utilized to manufacture these two alternate sweeteners. With the introduction of sugar mills and their multiple growth and better standard of living and higher per capita income, the demand for sweetener has shifted to white sugar which contains purely sucrose (99.7%).

Introduction

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) commonly called as Poor man’s cashew, is the 6^th most important oil seed crop in the world. It contains 48-50% oil, 26-28% protein and 11-27% carbohydrates. Groundnut is grown on 26.4 million hectare worldwide, with a total production of 37.1 million metric tons and an average productivity of 1.4 metric tons/ha. Developing countries constitute 97% of the global area and 94% of the global production of this crop (FAO, 2011). The production of groundnut is concentrated in Asia and Africa, where the crop is grown mostly by smallholder farmers under rain-fed conditions with limited inputs. Groundnuts (peanuts) are popularly used as seed oil in India. Since, they are obtained from the ground, they are called as groundnuts and also known as ‘Mungfali’ in Hindi, ‘Palleelu or Veru sanaga’ in Telugu, ‘Kadalai’ in Tamil, ‘Nilakkadala’ in Malayalam, ‘Kadale kaayi’ in Kannada, ‘Singdana’ in Gujarati and ‘Shengdaane’ in Marathi. Groundnuts are easily available round the year and almost everywhere in India. Groundnuts are also taken as snacks in many households especially in India. In reality, groundnuts are actually legumes. Since, they have all the properties of nuts like almonds, cashew nuts, etc., these are also included in the family of nuts.

Groundnut is the major oil seed of India. It accounts for 25% of total oil produced in India. Annual production of groundnut is around 9690 thousand tones. As the crop is grown in rainfed conditions, production and productivity are highly vulnerable to rainfall and exhibit huge fluctuation between the years. In India, groundnuts are produced both during Kharif (75%) and Rabi seasons (25%). Major production catchments of groundnut are located in Gujarat holding a share of 50.77% of total groundnut production, Andhra Pradesh holding a second place (12.69%) followed by Tamil Nadu (9.91%). Following are the top groundnut producing states of India (Table 1).

Introduction

Soybean (Glycine max) is also known as the wonder bean or miracle bean or “golden grain” due to its diversified applicability. Soybean has an important place in world’s oilseed cultivation scenario, due to its high productivity, profitability and vital contribution towards maintaining soil fertility. The crop also has a prominent place as the world’s most important seed legume, which contributes 25% to the global vegetable oil production, about two thirds of the world’s protein concentrate for livestock feeding and is a valuable ingredient in formulated feeds for poultry and fish. The major soybean producing nations are United States, Brazil and Argentina. These three countries dominate in global production, accounting for 80% of the world’s soybean supply. Global production of soybean has grown at a CAGR of 2.78% from 215.69 million metric tons in 2004-05 to 283.79 million metric tons in 2013-14.

India stands 5^th in global production of soybean. In India, soybean cultivation started in early 1970s, but it has emerged as number one among oilseed crops covering around 11 m ha area with total production of around 11.5 m tons. At present, the average productivity of soybean is about 1.3 tons/ha and it can be easily doubled in near future. Production of soybean in India is dominated by Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh which contribute 89% of the total production. Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh and Gujarat contribute the remaining 11% production.

About 85% of world’s soybeans are processed annually into soybean meal and oil. Approximately 98% of soybean meal is crushed and further processed into animal feed with the balance used to make soy flour and proteins. Of the oil fraction, 95% is consumed as edible oil; the rest is used for industrial products such as fatty acids, soaps and biodiesel.

Introduction

Pulses are major and cheap sources of protein in Indian vegetarian diet, providing most of the essential amino acids. Pulses are mainly consumed in the form of dehusked split pulses (Dal); and have 15-24% proteins. Various types of pulses grown are pigeon pea, chickpea, black gram, green gram, lentil, etc. Pulses are consumed because of body building properties due to the presence of various amino acids. By-products of pulses like leaves, pod coats and bran are fed to animals in the form of dry fodder. Some pulse crops like gram, lobia, urd bean & moong bean are fed to animals as green fodder.

Introduction

21^st century challenges like climate change, water scarcity, increasing world population, rising food prices, and other socio-economic impacts are expected to generate a great threat to agriculture and food security worldwide, especially for the poorest people who live in arid and sub-arid regions. Millet is one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millet has been used in Africa and India as a staple food for thousands of years. Typical grain texture and hard seed coat of millets increase their keeping quality but make them difficult to process as well as to cook in convenient form. Absence of appropriate primary processing technologies to prepare ready-to-use or ready-to-cook (RTC) products and also the secondary as well as tertiary processing technologies to prepare ready-to-eat value added products from millets are the major limiting factors for their diversified food uses.

Millets have relatively poor digestibility and low bio-availability of minerals due to the presence of inherent anti-nutritional factors. The difficulties in millet grain processing present a challenge but nutritional as well as health benefits and consumer demand for health foods provide opportunities in processing, develop suitable technology for newer products and process mechanization. This change in technology and consumer food preference would help in increasing the area under millets, maintaining ecological balance, ensuring food security, prevent malnutrition and increase the scope for utilization of millet grains on industrial scale.