eChapters

ABSTRACT

Heavy metal contaminated soils are biologically inactive and extremely poor in soil fertility status. These metals are highly resistant and cannot be easily degraded by either chemical reactions or amendments. Microorganisms are biological softwares capable of degrading the metals efficiently. Among microorganisms, mycorrhizas are known to circumvent metal toxicities through a series of processes that assist in immobilization in biological systems which converts toxic metals into less or nontoxic forms. There are five mechanisms such as biosorption, solubilization, hyphal transport, detoxification and dilution are involved in promoting tolerance of host plants to heavy metal toxicities. These processes are strategies that can be exploited to phytoremediate the contaminated soils. The phytoremediation strategies encompass tolerance of mycorrhizal fungi, phytostabilization (preventing entry of heavy metals into plants), phytoextraction (luxuriant uptake and transport to shoots) and intercropping or crop rotation with mycorrhizal dependent hyperaccumulators or non-hyperaccumulators. Despite mycorrhizas are natural, the indigenous population is not sufficient enough to induce tolerance of host plants to abiotic and biotic stress conditions. This necessitates adopting recommended agronomic practices to promote mycorrhizal colonization in natural agro-ecosystem or to derive full benefits from phytoremediation strategies. Thus mycorrhizas are important naturally occurring microorganisms capable of withstanding highly contaminated metal sites and offer protection against phytotoxicities caused by heavy metals.

ABSTRACT

Worldwide reinterpretation of evolutionary history of sedimentary basins had commenced with the introduction of sequence stratigraphic concepts by geoscientists of Exxon. The eustatic sea level controlled deposition in sedimentary basins together with synchronous excursions of many trace elemental and stable isotopic compositions of sedimentary strata have led to a proposition that geographically widely separated sedimentary strata could be classified and correlated with ease by application of sequence stratigraphy and chemostratigraphy, relatively younger branches. This paper reviews the key definitions of these stratigraphic methods, presents an overview on their applicability in petroleum exploration, reservoir characterization and stratigraphic correlation. Considering the man-hours required for interpretation of sequences and chemozones from large quantum of core samples being generated from exploration activities and the possibility of human-error and biased nature of interpretations, an automation scheme involving statistical discrimination is suggested. The statistical discrimination method has been tested to have 76-100 % distinction of depositional units of Recent – Cretaceous in age in terms of sequences, chemozones, lithostratigraphic units, petrographic types and sedimentary microenvironments with 100% reproducibility of predictions. Hence, creation of a large database with well constrained subpopulations and putting it to use for recognition of depositional units and correlation of strata and reservoir characterization is suggested which may reduce operational inconsistencies and improve exploration strategies.

ABSTRACT

Mecheri Panchayat union lies in the northwestern part of Salem district and adjascent to Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu. It lies between the latitudes 11°43’ -12° and longitudes 77° 48’ -78° 03’ of Toposheet No. 58 E/13 of scale 1:50,000 published by survey of India in 1973. Mecheri Panchayat union covers a total area of about 177.6 Sq.Km with a population nearly 1 lakh, live in 150 hamlets. Groundwater is the only replenshable nature resources available to man. The use of groundwater has been growing steadily over the years for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. Hydrogeochemical study is a dynamic process undergoing constant change in space and time. In unconfined aquifers, the change likely to be quite rapid and cyclic in nature with respect to the mode of recharge and discharge and related to the nature of host aquifer. In this study an attempt has been made for understanding the chemical quality of groundwater in theunconfined aquifer of Mecheri union. Groundwater samples have been collected from 10 representative dug wells lying in the Mecheri union during December 2004 and analysed by the standard procedures of water analyses. It is essential in determining its usefulness for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes. Presentation of Geochemical data in the form of graphical charts such as Collin’s bar, Stiff’s polygon diagram, Pie diagram, Piper tri linear diagram, USSL classification and thematical maps were prepared for recognizing various hydrogeochemical types in the Mecheri union. Deleterious effects of fluoride on the human beings are well known. Fluoride are known to be beneficial, when present in concentration ranging from 0.5 ppm to 1.2 ppm. But when it exceeds the limit 1.2 ppm it is found to cause fluorosis. Dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis may be caused depending upon the concentration of fluorides in drinking water. The main source of drinking water for the majority of people of Mecheri union is groundwater obtained through dug and bore wells. The analysis of groundwater samples showing high (> 1.5 ppm) fluorite content observed in the following villages, viz Mallikundam, Kuttapatti Aranganur, Banapuram, Sathappadi, Mecheri town, Virudasampatti and Amaram.

Abstract

The tsunami has struck many coastal countries of South Asia on 26 December 2004 and caused greater devastation along Andaman - Nicobar and Indian coasts. In India, Tamil Nadu coast is worst affected in Kanyakumari, Nagapattinam and Cuddalore districts. Subsequently, damage assessment, in respect of natural and physical resources, was done using Remote Sensing and GIS in parts of Cuddalore and Pondicherry coasts. The structural damages were studied village wise and categorized as maximum, moderate and least affected areas. As far as the natural resources are concerned, the changes in geomorphology, land use/ land cover, soil and water have been studied. On the basis of the same, the risk maps were also generated in GIS environment.

Keywords: Tsunami, Damage Assessment, Remote Sensing, GIS, Cuddalore, Pondicherry

Abstract

Drying is a widely used method of food preservation. It leads to some structural changes in the dried material resulting in poor quality and rehydration. Freeze drying, though a costly process, reduces water activity without exposing the food material to high temperatures, eventually retains the original quality to a great deal. Moisture in the foods is frozen to ice which is sublimated under low pressure. Low pressure helps to vaporise the ice without transforming it to liquid, hence leaving the food structure porous in nature. The food is claimed to preserve the nutritional, sensory and re-constitutional qualities.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Most food materials are composed of a very high percentage of water, which can be as high as 95%, and this makes them susceptible to microbial activity. Microbial activity spoils the products, leaving them useless for human consumption. It not only changes their taste and color but it may also develop toxins, thus making them unsafe. There are various methods for preserving food but in order to make them shelf stable, removing water from foods helps keep them from spoiling for a longer period of time.

Abstract

Drying is one of the most important industrial operations for preservation of food material. Due to the major limitations posed by convective drying methods, there is always a need for novel drying techniques which are technically, economically and environmentally sustainable. Based on the principle of moisture diffusion due to vapor pressure gradient, atmospheric freeze drying (AFD) offers a promising alternative to conventional drying systems. A cold gas with low water vapor pressure is used as drying medium to sublimate moisture directly from the frozen material at atmospheric pressure conditions. As a result the product gets dried at much lower temperature unlike convective drying. Thus, products dried with AFD retain better nutrition, texture and color and the process is also considerably cost effective. Major limitation of the AFD process is longer drying time, which can however be accelerated by using heat pump drying or new ultrasound technology. This chapter focuses on mechanism, benefits, limitations and comparative study of AFD with other drying methods such as hot air drying and vacuum freeze drying. It provides an insight regarding effect of AFD on properties of food material based on various studies reported in literature.

Abstract

Increasing global demand for ‘fresh-like’ processed food products has forced food industries to investigate into various minimal processing techniques. Food processing in general has been associated with thermal processing, alone or in various combination with chemical and mechanical preservation and processing methods. However, thermal processing methods are energy intensive in nature and tend to reduce product quality and freshness at the cost of shelf-life gain. Advance technique such as microwave, radio-frequency and freeze drying do maintain the product quality but their implementation at industrial scale involves high operational and maintenance cost. An ideal processing method therefore would be one that can process food products without losing its quality, is energy efficient and is easily scalable. In this chapter, we discuss about ‘Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Drying’, which is can be classified as a minimal processing technique. The heat and mass transfer principles involved in EHD drying have been extensively discussed and so has been the key consideration for designing an EHD drying system.

DEFINITION

Pheromones are chemical produced as messengers that affect the behavior of other individuals of insects. The term pheromone was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Liischer (1959) and is based on the Greek pherein (to transport) and hormon (to stimulate) is a chemical that triggers a natural behavioural response in another member of the same species. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones. And many are others that affect behaviour or physiology. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented, although many vertebrates and plants also communicate using pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals released by an organism into its environment enabling it to communicate with other members of its own species.

The green buildings are the needs of present day in India as well in the world. The easy availability of most of the green materials and equipments in the country has made it easier for designers to adopt local materials to a very large extent in the construction of green buildings. Now, there is an imminent need for service providers, who would be required in large number, not in hundreds but in thousands, as the movement is heading to reach greater heights. The green building movement is here to stay for the benefit of individuals, society and the country at large in the era of climate change.

With increase in the urbanization and industrialization, there is more pressure on available land and natural resources. In coming era, there will be only limited space available for city dwellers. In buildings one can grow a wide range of flowering and foliage plants. Plants not necessarily one confined to the outdoor only but bed room, kitchen, staircases, patios, windows and other locations can be made green with suitable plants. Indian Council of Green Building (ICGB) has developed the rating system.

Green Building in Santiago, Chile

A large amount of materials are used and energy consumed in construction and operation of average building. Many steps have been taken to reduce consumption of energy by developing new types of vehicle, energy sources, recycled materials and designing environment friendly buildings. These buildings are also known as green buildings or green construction or sustainable building.

Introduction

Bougainvillea is a popular ornamental plant in the tropics and sub-tropics of the world. The plant is mainly grown for its attractive bracts in wide array of colours which splash colour to the surrounding where it grows. Wide adaptability to different agro-climatic conditions and easy multiplication has made it a popular ornamental plant of the world. The mass effect of the colourful bracts of Bougainvillea can alter the face of any given place in a magnificent way which could not be achieved by punctuating any other plant. The flowering of Bougainvillea is compared with the Azalea of temperate countries and very truly called as Glory of the Tropics.’

The popularity of Bougainvillea has now crossed from tropical to temperate countries and successfully being grown as pot plants in green houses. Selection of cultivars of Bougainvillea spectabilis and B. peruviana for temperate region is recommended for better result. Availability of a large number of cultivars under horticulturally important species, provide a unique scope to the Bougainvillea lovers for wide choice according to their need. Single bracted cultivars with large bracts in different colours are obvious choice for every landscape designer while double bracted cultivars produce mass effect of colour as specimen plant. Considering its ornamental and commercial importance in nursery trade, R & D work were taken up by different national research institutes (IARI, IIHR, NBRI, BARC), agricultural universities, Agri-Horticultural Societies (Kolkata and Chennai) and even by progressive nursery men. As a result, a large number of new cultivars have been developed in India. Considering the contribution made by India, The international registration authority for new cultivars lies with The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi which is an international recognition conferred upon by International Society for Horticultural Science.

Recently, lot of development taking place for further popularization and exploitation of Bougainvillea around the world by way of development of new cultivars, standardization agro-technology suited to different zones. Countries like Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and India have been excelling in this area. Establishment of American Bougainvillea Society is another landmark in Bougainvillea cultivation.

Chemicals which are used specifically for the control of mite pests are known as acaricides, though there are many insecticides, which show acaricidal properties as well. In the last few decades, there has been tremendous progress in the development of broad-spectrum acaricides i.e. the compounds that will knock down different species of mites at the same time. Prior to the commercial introduction of broad-spectrum insecticides like DDT and other organochlorine insecticides, mites did not commercially cause wide-spread damage under natural or semi-natural environments which were little influenced by man. This might be due to the natural processes of prey-predator relationship in undisturbed situations. Contrastingly in situations where broad-spectrum pesticides are commonly used, the natural enemies are more adversely affected than the mites, and an outbreak of the latter occurs. Besides becoming generally intensified with the introduction of modern insecticides, the mite problem in some cases has subsequently become even more serious due to development of resistance against these materials.

Many spider mite species, which were rarely found in pest form in some situations, appeared commonly as major pests with the persistent use of pesticides. In Indian literature, spider mites were never reported in pest form prior to 1940 but with the intensive use of pesticides, every year new mite problems are appearing and becoming troublesome to control.

What is seed?

“A seed is an embryo, a living organism securely fixed in the supporting or the food storage tissue.”

A true seed is defined as “Structurally a true seed is a fertilized matured ovule, consisting of an embryonic plant, a store of food and a protective seed coat, a store of food consists of cotyledons and endosperm”. In broad sense, “seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose”. Scientifically, “seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat is called seed” or “it is a propagating material i.e., part of agriculture, sericulture, silviculture and horticultural plants used for sowing or planting purpose”.

The business of Seed Technology is to protect this biological entity and look after its ‘welfare’, while the focus of Food Technology is on the second component – the supporting tissue.

Introduction

Seed is a critical and vital input that draws an explicit line between the success and failure of any agricultural production programme. In fact progressive history of agriculture has been a history of seed development and production. The mankind has been attempting to select better seed and employ better seed production techniques volitionally or in-volitionally ever since it divested nomadic life for the settled one. Initial attempts were confined to selection of useful crops followed by selection of better sorts and land races among the available native genetic resources. The introductions, hybridization followed by selection of better types and modern breeding tools inclusive biotechnological interventions have been extensively employed to breed better seed. Considering that research in crop improvement can turn little stone unless the quality seed with desired attributes is made available to the farmers. Government of India set up enforcement of provisions of Seed Act, 1966 for certification of seed as per prescribed minimum standards. Central Seed Certification Board was established in 1972 to exhort the central and state governments for producing genetically and physically pure and physiologically viable seed. The seed production programmes and rules were progressively honed to meet the ground situations. Initially the seed was considered as the exclusive bastion of public sector but the private sector got actively involved in seed production. WTO the seed still became a very open subject and the Seed Act was modified in 1988 and 2001 to permit import and export of quality seed, respectively. Despite of all these positive developments in seed sector, the availability of seed is still far from satisfactory. As on today private sector dabbles in low volume high cost seed due to economics and storage factors but the high volume less cost is still a virgin for private sector and is predominantly done by the public sector. Crop improvement is no more an art and science of improving hereditary of crop plants but has become a starker and competitive business under which the stronger would survive and the weaker get eliminated.

Business was abysmally shattered at the terminal end of the Second World War. This forced some nations to sign some tariff related global

ABSTRACT

Traditional herbal drug preparations are known for centuries to protect several human diseases such as peptic ulcer, diarrhea, piles and dysentery. Current days knowledge about the underlying biochemical mechanism for most of the gastric ulcers and majority of the duodenal ulcers deserve appropriate consideration and due weightage while consolidating regarding the efficacy of a plant extract. The present investgation relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of lyophilized extract or at least one bioactive fraction obtained from flowers of Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz, along with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable additives or carriers. The present results provides a composition for treating ulcers such as stress induced ulcer, peptic ulcer, cold restraint induced ulcer, drug induced ulcer and acid induced ulcer, and also the composition used as specific inhibitor of gastric H+, K+-ATPase. Herbal formulation in the form of capsules were conducted on marker-based stability studies as per ICH Q1 guidelines at accelerated and real time stability studies (40±2°C, 75% ± 5% RH and 30±2°C, 65%±5% RH, respectively), and also stability testing investigation was done as per stability specifications at intervals of 0, 3, 6 months for accelerated stability studies and 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36 months for real time stability. The present data reveals that this species is one of the potent Indian medicinal Plant which helps in curing ulcer and associated diseases.

ABSTRACT

Due to the exorbitant price of the popular gelling agent agar, Plant Tissue Culture (PTC) has gradually become a costly technique in recent times. So, alternative sources of agar needs to be popularized which at one hand should be able to meet all the positive properties of agar and on the other hand be cost effective as well. The seed husk obtained from Plantago ovata Forsk. is such an alternative which was successfully used as a gelling agent for media preparation in PTC experiments for in-vitro shoot and root development in Nicotiana tabacum L. and Ocimum gratissimum L. The nodal explants were grown in MS basal medium (MSo) supplemented with 3% sucrose and were gelled with progressive concentrations of isabgol husk to ascertain the optimum concentration for better survival and growth response, while 0.8% agar acted as a negative control. The response of the explants on media gelled with husk was compared to that of media gelled with 0.8% agar. It was inferred that 0.3% husk in the medium was optimum for best growth response which was comparable to that of agar. Consequently, the estimated cost of a liter of MSo reduced by almost Rs.61.15/- (compared to Himedia’s Agar) to Rs.177.57/- (compared to Sigma’s Agar) after using isabgol seed husk as a gelling agent in media preparation.

ABSTRACT

Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. is a valuable grass growing in Midnapore district of West Bengal known for their commercial purposes. Livelihood of and many of peoples are depends on the production of this grass. Besides this we try to present their phytochemical constituents mainly alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolic compounds for medicinal study. In this investigation, we studied the morpho-taxonomy and anatomical characterization as well as phytochemical screening of different chemicals. Besides this we make an idea about presence of sugar molecules by HPLC study and chemical bonding properties with the help of FTIR. The detailed study gives an idea about E. binata and its medicinal properties.

ABSTRACT

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. is a plant species belonging to flowering family Rutaceae which has medicinal application in traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. It is characterized by trifoliolate leaves with leaf-stalk winged, branches with straight prickles, and fruits are small reddish brown. In India, tribal community used this species as carminative, dyspepsia, tooth curing, treating malaria fever, stomach pain and expelling roundworms. Chemistry indicates that Z. armatum is a repository of many chemical compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, sterols and triterpenoids. Zanthonitrile, berberine, α-sitosterol, armatamide, limonene and linalool are major constituents. Leaves and young shoots yield essential oils which act as anti-bacterial, antifungal and anthelminthics, and has tremendous potential in development of value added products. Volatile oils are active constituentsof linalool, limonene and ligan. Z. armatum has been declared as an endangered species as per International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) Red List category. Conservation practices needs to be adopted to conserve this valuable medicinal plant. There is a need to study on ecology, adaptive biology, chemistry and biotechnological intervention for future propagation and conservation of this medicinal plant species.

ABSTRACT

Panax L. is an important medicinal plant species complex, which is commonly known as ginseng. Ginseng has high commercial value for itsginsenoside contents and is collected from the wildin the subtropical-temperate forests of north-eastern India. Taxonomy, ecology and phenology of five species of Panax found in north-eastern India viz., P. assamicus R. N. Banerjee, P. bipinnatifidus Seem., P. pseudoginseng Wall., P. variabilis J. Wenand P. sokpayensis Sharma& Pandit, have beendiscussed in this paper. The distribution of these species is restricted to the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Darjeeling HillsofWest Bengal.P. pseudoginseng hasextended distribution range in Nepal. P. variabilis was reported from Nagaland, which is a new record for India. All the species of Panax prefer shady and moist habitat. The species grow in the soil texture that ranges from loamy sand to sandy. The pH ranges from 4.3-7.1. The species is perennial and pereniates through its underground rhizome. The phenophase starts with emergence of seedlings in the late March and senescence takes place in the middle of October after seed setting. Monitoring of the populations of all Panax species revealed that the population size have decreased by 40-50% over a period of 10 years due to over-harvesting from the wild by the local people for its medicinal value. Sustainable use of rhizome and its cultivation practice need to be standardized to address the conservation issues related to the plant.

ABSTRACT

Systematic studies through stored specimens in herbaria and museum of defined geographical areas provide a set of baseline data for understanding the vegetation composition of a defined ecosyetm. A stored plant collection in herbaria offers a rich portrait of biodiversity, making innumerable contribution to science and human society. Digitization coupled with hosting of such information on world wide web (www) system has been accepted as an important tool for the dissemination of the botanical specimens in the form of databasing, imaging and geo-referencing of voucher specimens. In the present communication, we describe the development of the Janaki Ammal Herbarium (JAH) database that contains a comprehensive and searchable data of voucher snaps, historical background and statistical analysis of 23,225 voucher specimens. The information on JAH database is easy to extract data on botanical names, author citation, variety (if any), family, collection number, specific location, collection date, habitat, collector’s name and remarks on morphology. The goal of the present investigation is to digitize (database, image, georeference) all specimensin JAH, enabling themto be made available through a single portal. At concluding, all vouchers of JAH made publicly accessible via world wide web user interfaces, and also linked to PubMed, NCBI Taxonomy, where the site provide information related to Entrez records, comments and references of the particular species, while Wiki species site is linked to the free species directory. It also provide link of online accessible herbarium-based databases of the world.

1. Introduction

The scientific naming of plants is called botanical nomenclature. Although, nomenclature is included in taxonomy, but it distinctly differs from taxonomy. Plant taxonomy is concerned with grouping and classifying plants, however, the botanical nomenclature provides names for the results of this process. Names are a means of reference to all living and non-living things. The common names of pants and animals vary from place to place and language to language. But, scientific names of plants and animals are universal. For uniformity and consistency, the scientific names are given to plants according to certain internationally accepted rules provided in International Code of Nomenclature. It was Linnaeus who for the first time proposed some rules for generic names of plants in his Fundamenta Botanica, 1736 and Critica Botanica, 1737. However, the first proper set of rules of plant nomenclature was drafted by A. P. de Candolle and passed by the International Botanical Congress at Paris in 1867. The present Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) in 2012.

Botanical nomenclature has a long history, going back to the period when Latin was the scientific language throughout Europe, and perhaps further back to Theophrastus. The starting point for modern botanical nomenclature is Linnaeus’ Species Plantarum (1753). In the nineteenth century it became increasingly clear that there was a need for rules to govern scientific nomenclature and initiatives were taken to produce a body of laws. These rules were published in successively more sophisticated editions after every six years. The most recent is the Melbourne Code, adopted in 2012.

All formal botanical names are governed by the ICN, and within the limits set by that code there is another set of rules, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). The latter Code applies to plant cultivars that have been deliberately altered or selected by humans and require separate recognition

1. Introduction

Seeds have complex and remarkable diversity in shape, size, colour and morphological and anatomical sculpturing details of seed coat, which are valuable for taxonomic significance and can be used as an additional parameter combined with other parameters during taxa identification and classification. Distinctive seed coat morphology usually allowing identification of species even solely on the basis of seed characters. All members of a particular taxon possess variation within acceptable limits of their description and can be used for identification purposes. High structural diversity provides most valuable criteria for classification between species and family level. Takhtajan (1959) pointed out that even for the phylogenetic correlation between families and genera, the structure of the seed coat might be important. Most taxonomists agree that data concerning the structure and microstructure are of great significance mainly for the classification of angiosperm taxa. Consequently, in addition to vegetative and reproductive characters, seed characters are being used in most of the studies for the analysis of taxonomic relationship in wide variety of plant families. It was observed that seed morphology and anatomical features are rather conservatives, which makes them taxonomically important (Esau 1977; Barthlott 1984).

Gaertner (1788-1805) was the first botanist to use seeds and fruit morphology for comparison and identification of different taxa. Later on, Harz (1885) presented a comprehensive account of seed structures and their individual characters of different taxa. In the 20^th century interest in legume seed morphology was renewed. Capitaine (1912) studied the seed morphology of entire family and concluded that seed morphological characters are helpful in legume classification and identification at the tribal, generic and specific levels. After 40 years of Capitaine, Jensen (1998) documented 27 publications on seed morphology. Gunn (1981) summerized the seed characteristics for 510 legume genera. Seed characters of seventeen families were compared by Isley (1947). Duke (1961) indicated that seed shape, sculpturing and colour provide a critical indication of the systematic position of species of Drymaria (Caryophyllaceae). Obermeyer (1962) pointed out that the only reliable distinction between the two genera Chlorophytum and Anthericum of Liliaceae appears the number and shape of seeds. Hairy outgrowth on the testa, their length and colour provide useful characters in the distinction of genera/species in Malvaceae, Convolvulaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Acanthaceae. Gunn (1970, 1971) divided one hundred species of Vicia into major and minor groups on the basis of seed size, shape and length of the hilum, lens position and seed coat pattern and sculpturing. He successfully employed these characters up to specific level. Gunn and Gaffney (1974) studied the seeds of 42 economically important taxa of Solanaceae, including hilum and surface pattern as key character. Later on Gunn and Barnes (1977) had also used seed characters in the delimitation of Erythrina species. Seavey et al. (1977) studied the seeds of 210 species of Onagraceae, where seven seed groups were recognized and their evolutionary implications were also discussed. Matthews and Levinus (1986) demonstrated fairly constant seed characters in those species of Portulacaceae which have restricted geographical distribution, whereas the seeds of species with wider geographical distribution show varied morphological structures.

Fraudulent substitution of meat is the adulteration or mixing of the inferior or cheaper quality meat into superior quality meat. The first case of fraudulent substitution was recorded in thirteenth century A.D. at Florence in Italy. A common fraud in the meat industry in which uninspected meat is substituted for meat that has undergone inspection and been branded as satisfactory. The other frauds are the substitution of meat of another species, e.g. horse for beef especially in Britain and Ireland, beef in kangaroo meat in Australia, cat for chicken or rabbit, goat meat for mutton, mutton for venison, dog meat and cat meat for chevon in other countries including India. As per an estimate about 25-30% of meat sold in India is adulterated. These practices are more common in comminuted meat products. These illegal practices are punishable under PFA act 1955. The choice of method to be applied is depend on the need or condition of meat recovered.

Physico-chemical and microbiological quality of meat and aquatic food and food products gives its overall safety and quality status as a food. The physico-chemical and microbiological qualities of raw material have great importance on the product development. It also affects the shelf life of the raw material as well as final product.

Fresh meat is a type of meat which has not been subjected to any processing whereas raw meat is a fresh meat which has undergone freezing. The qualities of fresh meat are important as far as merchandiser, purchaser and consumers are concerned and it is also important for adaptability in further processing. The important quality parameters of fresh meat are:

Meteorology is derived from the Greek word meteoro which means above the earth’s surface; i.e., the atmosphere. The state of the atmosphere experienced at a given time, in any location on the surface of the earth is known as weather. Thus meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere or the weather. It is a branch of physics dealing with atmosphere and it is often quoted as the ‘physics of the lower atmosphere’. The main focus of meteorology is to understand the weather processes and forecast the weather. Solar radiation, the air mass and moisture are the three key ingredients that make up weather. The exchange of heat, moisture and momentum between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere determines the characteristic of weather. The observable weather events are known as meteorological phenomena and are defined by a set of variables called weather elements. Atmospheric temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, wind and visibility, etc. are examples of such weather elements. The weather elements are not separate entities. They are closely related with each other and are highly variable in nature. Meteorology explains and analyses the changes of these weather elements.

Meteorology

The major subdivisions of meteorology are dynamic meteorology (or atmospheric dynamics) and physical meteorology (or atmospheric physics). The dynamic meteorology is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the three-dimensional, time-varying, macro scale motions and energy transformations in the atmosphere. The science of dynamic meteorology is meant to develop models based on the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic equations. The physical meteorology is concerned with the processes that alter the physical properties and the chemical composition of air parcels as they move through the atmosphere.

Meteorological hazards are severe and extreme weather and climate events that occur in all parts of the world, although some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards than others. Meteorological hazards include cyclones, droughts, floods, hurricanes, hailstorms, heat waves and tornadoes. The hazard is distinguished from an extreme event and a disaster. An extreme event is simply an unusual event; it does not necessarily cause harm. A disaster is an event that does cause harm in significant amounts. Meteorological hazards are often called as natural hazards. The natural hazards become natural disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are destroyed.

Hydrological hazards are the result of either excess or a severe lack of water, i.e., flood or drought. Hydrometeorological hazard is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Human and material losses caused by natural disasters are a major obstacle to sustainable development. By issuing accurate forecasts and warnings in a form that is readily understood and by educating people about how to prepare against such hazards, before they become disasters, lives and property can be protected.

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the past and current state of the atmosphere on a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve on that place. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation is important to agriculture.

Agricultural production is highly dependent on weather, climate and water availability, and is adversely affected by weather and climate related disasters. In many developing countries where rainfed agriculture is the norm, a good rainy season means good crop production, enhanced food security and a healthy economy. Failure of rains and occurrence of natural disasters such as floods and droughts can lead to crop failures, food insecurity, famine, loss of property and life, mass migration, and negative national economic growth (Sivakumar, 2006).

Farming in many parts of the world, especially in the arid and semiarid regions is risky, because climate is highly variable. In some developing countries as much as 80% of the variability in agricultural production is due to the variability in weather conditions. This production variability in agriculture has immediate and important macroeconomic impacts. A timely seasonal forecast of favourable conditions could permit farmers to adjust cropping patterns and input use in order to benefit fully from these conditions. Also, a timely forecast could give the marketing system and downstream users, such as the food processing industry, time to prepare for a bountiful harvest (Arndt et al., 2000). It is important to remember that under rainfed conditions, even a less reliable, but earlier forecast may be more valuable than an accurate but late forecast (Mjelde et al., 1998).

Abstract

Entrepreneurship essentially involves economic and dynamic activities, risk- assuming and idea generation that help in developing, organising and managing a business opportunity for profits. Entrepreneurship in agriculture is not merely confined to farm activities but also involves activities interlinked and interdependent with core and peripheral agricultural activities. Impediments in the pathway of agricultural entrepreneurship in West Bengal are characterised by fragmented landholding, low financial resources and thereby debt stickiness & dependence on short-term agricultural loan. Though disbursements of short-term credit have increased substantially, the rate of increase is low. For most farmers, insurance for financial or crop crisis is unheard or have hardly any implication. The paper tries to explain the performance of various agricultural insurance schemes in terms of coverage and the benefits being delivered in India and in West Bengal. The paper analyses whether the recipients consider the schemes as an effective risk mitigation tool or merely a habit of credit-dependence in West Bengal through a diffusion model. The paper concludes with the focus on possible entrepreneurial opportunities that may offer more customised agri-insurance policies, where regional disparities could be considered and individual interests be given little more importance.

Abstract

Out of 1.37 billion populationof India 67 % lives in rural areas whose major source of income is agriculture and allied activities (World Population Review, 2019). In simple words, the livelihood of this vast majority is closely related to rural enterprises. Fostering rural entrepreneurship may be affected by several issues, infrastructure being one of them. This paper attempts to examine the relationship between infrastructure investment by the state and rural entrepreneurship in India, with ‘Gross Fixed Capital Formation’ and ‘Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing, Value Added’ considered as proxy variables. Time series econometrics is compiled with the data collected from World Bank Database for the period of 1961-2017. The study has established evidence in support of greater investment in infrastructure enhancing rural entrepreneurial opportunities in India.

Abstract: Ornamental salvia, native to Brazil is cultivated as bedding plant in the world. Many species have horticultural, commercial and medicinal values. Continued breeding and improvement of salvia is focused on disease resistance, new flower colours, seed oil content and abiotic stress tolerance. Interspecific hybridization is hampered by genomic differences, heterostyly, self incompatibility and low seed set. Breeders have created polyploid cultivars and mutants which have high ornamental value. Continued use of these and other modern techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Keywords: Salvia, polyploidization, male sterility, inheritance, seed production.

Abstract: Tuberose, native of Mexico, occupies prominent position due to long spikes of fragrant flowers, potential in perfume industry and nearly year round growth in tropical and sub-tropical climate. Flowers are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and cut flowers for table decoration. Flowers remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation. Lack of genetic diversity in flower type, size, colour, self incompatibility, sterility, low seed set and limited information on genetics of characters pose significant challenges to breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf plant type, novel colours, attractive forms for pot culture/ bedding purpose intense fragrance and high essential oil content. Only two white flowered cvs. Single and Double types are cultivated for commercial production. Salient breeding achievements through planned hybridization and mutation breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Polianthes, cultivars, interspecific/ intervarietal hybridization, transgressive segregants, gamma rays.

Genetic architecture of a population is the result of prolonged natural selection. The populations which exist in diverse environments might have been strongly diversified genetically. So, it is necessary to understand the extent and rates of genetic divergence existing between the diversified forms or types. Genetic diversity may be available in improved germplasm or it may exist only in genetically inferior stocks.

Genetic divergence among the parents is important in self pollinated crops because a cross involving genetically diverse parents is likely to produce high heterozygous as well as heterotic effect. In such a cross, more variability could be expected in the segregating generations due to the accumulation of the genes of both the parents. Genetic divergence, as one of the criteria of selection of parents is considered in plant breeding as early as 1962 (Murthy et al., 1962; Timothy, 1963). Later, Joshi and Dhawan (1966), Murthy and Arunachalam (1966), Arunachalam et al. (1984) and Lefort-Buson (1987) also stated that for exploiting heterosis as a means of increasing production, it is necessary to have parents of maximum divergence. The more diverse the parents, more is the chance of pronounced heterotic effects and increased spectrum of variability in the segregating generations.

The availability of statistical tools to quantitatively measure the genetic divergence between two or more populations and the relative contribution of individual characters to the total divergence have permitted to trace the evolutionary patterns in some crops such as rice and tobacco and in choosing the parents for hybridization in crop plants (Rao, 1958; Blackith, 1960; Morishima and Oka, 1960; Murthy et al., 1962). Among the several statistical methods developed for measuring the divergence between the populations, multivariate analysis (D² statistic) developed by Mahalanobis in 1936, has been found to be a potent tool. Mahalanbobis’s D² statistic is an effective tool in quantifying the degree of divergence at genetic level and provides a quantitative measure of the association between geographic and genetic diversity based on generalized distance. It is now known that the estimates of genetic divergence are also influenced by environments and seasons. Therefore, if the divergence analysis is conducted in a number of seasons and parents are selected on the basis of consistent divergence over the seasons, the problem of influence of seasons on divergence analysis can be largely overcome.

The relative magnitude of different gene effects and an understanding of the mode of inheritance of complex quantitative traits have a direct bearing on the method of hybridization and selection which should be adopted in a specific breeding programme. Useful biometrical methods have been developed by the Birmingham group of scientists, to analyse the genetic architecture in organisms, through the use of first and second degree statistics obtainable from the true breeding inbreds, their first generation crosses and the different types of segregating progenies (Mather, 1949; Hayman, 1958; Gamble, 1962; Mather and Jinks, 1971). Since then this method has been widely used in the genetic analysis of various crops.

Abstract

Natural sunlight is the cheapest source available, but for horticulture it is not always attainable in sufficient quantities. Therefore, the use of artificial light has become very common in order to increase production and quality. Under artificial lighting technologies, LED lighting is one of the technology that can help in producing crops and flowers in a more effective and sustainable way around the world. The benefits of LEDs are that the spectrum and intensity can be selected and adjusted, the energy efficiency is higher than most conventional light sources and their small size, durability, long lifetime, cool emitting temperature, and the option to select specific wavelengths for a targeted plant response make LEDs more suitable for plant-based uses than many other light sources. These advantages, coupled with new developments in wavelength availability, light output, and energy conversion efficiency, can bring about a revolution in horticultural lighting. Light quality plays a major role in the appearance and productivity of ornamental and food specialty crop species. Far-red light, for example, is important for stimulating flowering of long-day plants (Deitzer et al., 1979; Downs, 1956) as well as for promoting internode elongation (Morgan and Smith, 1979). Blue light is important for phototropism (Blaauw and Blaauw-Jansen, 1970), for stomatal opening (Schwartz and Zeiger, 1984), and for inhibiting seedling growth on emergence of seedlings from a growth medium (Downs, 1956). The interactions are complex and continue to be unraveled at the molecular level (Devlin et al., 2007), but much of our understanding of these responses comes from studies with narrow-waveband lighting sources, in which LEDs provide obvious advantages. Thus, one potential role of LEDs in horticulture could be to enhance desired characteristics for specific crops. The artificial LED lightings increase the possibility of year-round production of ornamental plants, which will subsequently increase the income of growers related to ornamental industry. Light-emitting diodes pave the way for a better understanding of the interaction between light and pests, diseases, natural enemies and plants, as they make possible the use of very narrow wavelengths. LEDs as an option for reducing the use of growth retardants and obtaining better product quality in ornamental pot plants. Production of secondary metabolites increase with higher blue light ratio. Secondary metabolites production are increased and act against Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and pathogens, precondition the plant for environmental changes so they can cope with stress more efficiently.

Introduction

Pulses are pivotal and integral component of Indian agriculture and are excellent crops for natural resources management, environment security, crop diversification consequently for viable agriculture. India contributes 25 percent of the global production but has to import pulses to the home to the tune of 3.5mt every year to meet domestic requirement. In spite of largest area for chickpea, pigeon pea, lentil, dry beans & total pulses in the world, India’s’position in average productivity has never been decent i.e.25^th rank in chickpea, 19^th in Pea & 98^th in total pulses. This indicates that except chick pea & pigeon pea, the average productivity of the country is significantly lower than average yield of the world. To make India self sufficient in pulse production, the productivity level has to increase more than1200 kg/ha. by 2020. This gigantic task needs rigorous development & promotional efforts to transfer agro-technology packages in crop improvement and crop management, which are capable of doubling the present level of productivity Nanda et al. (1999) and Nanda

In the post-green revolution period, the incessant rice-rice/wheat crop rotation has undoubtedly made the country surplus in cereal production but has marginalized pulses. This has raised serious concern about sustainability of the production system. Recognizing the importance of pulses for meeting dietary requirements of vast vegetarian population on one hand and their role in improving soil health and conserving natural resources on the other, the efforts were made to develop high yielding, short duration and disease resistant varieties of different pulse crops which can help in diversification and intensification of popular cropping systems. As a result, several new cropping systems have been designed, developed and advocated for rainfed and irrigated areas.

Pulses are known for their soil fertility restoration value. Deep rooting, nitrogen fixation, leaf shedding ability and mobilization of insoluble soil nutrients are some of the unique characteristics of pulses. By improving chemical, biological and physical environment in the soil, pulses can arrest the declining trend in productivity of cereal-cereal system. Inclusion of pulses in intensive cereal based system itself is a component of integrated plant nutrient supply system. Therefore, pulses have become viable alternative to improve the soil health and conserve the natural resources and agricultural sustainability. Pulses in the cereal/oilseed based cropping systems are introduced to break the monotony of crop rotation. Pulses being rainfed low input crop provide safeguard against crop failure due to scanty rainfall and adverse weather conditions. Apart from enriching soil fertility, introduction of pulses in cropping system also improves nitrogen economy. Early pigeonpea-wheat sequence was evaluated and found promising than traditional rice-wheat cropping system in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, central and western Uttar Pradesh.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.

Pulses are one of the highly consumed eatables due to their palatability and nutritious quality. They are essential components of food as sources of protein to vast vegetarian population. Being a cheap source of proteins, pulses also play an important role in nutritional security of the nation. Pulses also provide green pods for vegetables and nutritious fodder for cattle because of their rich essential amino acid lysine content. Dry pulses are converted to dal and used by majority of people. Since majority of Indians are vegetarians, they depend largely on grain legumes (pulses) for their dietary protein.

The stages through which the commodity passes from harvest till we consume that are considered as post harvest stages. Post harvest management is an important component of agriculture and is the key to make more food and nutrition available to people. This is very important when it is estimated that almost about 10% of the food grains are lost every year in a country like India due to improper post harvest management and lack of value addition (Pal and Dash, 2012).

Genus Citrus (Citrus spp.) belongs to family Rutaceae and subfamily Aurantioedae. Citrus fruits are cultivated over a wide range of agroclimatic conditions because of their ability to adapt to different situations. Citrus is considered to be one of the most remunerative fruit crops in India, having a lasting niche in the international trade and world finance. Most of the Citrus species are believed to be native to tropical and subtropical regions of southeast Asia, particularly, northeastern India and the region between China and India (Ghosh, 2007). Trees belonging to genus Citrus are comparatively small in size (other perennial fruit crops) and evergreen in nature that are grown in tropical, subtropical and even mild temperate climates. Citrus fruits are nonclimacteric so they do not ripen further once removed from the trees. So it is important that they are picked at the right stage of maturity.

Guava (Psidium guajava L.), belonging to family Myrtaceae, is cultivated and naturalized in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It occupies fifth place in area (0.15 million ha.) and fourth place in fruit production (1.80 million tonnes) in India. It has gained considerable prominence owing to its high nutritive value, availability at moderate price, a pleasant aroma and good flavour. Its fruits are used for both, fresh eating and processing. It excels most other fruit crops in productivity, hardiness, adaptability and vitamin C content. Besides its high nutritive value, it bears heavy crop every year and gives handsome economic return involving very little inputs. This has prompted several Indian farmers to take up guava cultivation on a commercial scale (Chadha, 2003). Guava trees are not difficult to grow and can survive in a range of soil and climatic conditions. However, precise management is required to produce a highly profitable crop.

2.1 Introduction

Energy is one of the main input for rural development and economic development. The greater part of the world population lives at low standard and a quarter of the population or about 1.5 billion, have an extremely low standard of life. Energy is one of the essential requirement of the quality of life the people. The industrial development or even large scale food production, water supply, textile manufactures & construction of building and other recreation items are not possible without adequate supply of energy. Therefore, one of the most important tasks is to provide adequate, reliable, convenient and efficient supply of energy, if quality of life of the people is to be raised from its present level of grinding poverty. Table 2.1 project the global primary energy supply in six scenarios i.e A1 - its strong emphasis on oil and natural gas use. A2 - which is coal-intensive. A3 - which emphasises the roles of natural gas, new renewables and nuclear in averting serious problems from emissions. B - Middle course. C1- with its emphasis on energy efficiency improvements, new renewables (especially solar in the longer run), but with nuclear power phased out by 2100 because unable to satisfy its critics and C2 - where nuclear power plays an expanding role.

ABSTRACT

Benthic fishes represent a significant component of riffle communities. Our 10 year study on two benthic fishes, Crossostoma lacustre and Rhinogobius candidianus which are sympatric in Hapen Creek, Northern Taiwan, reveals that these species exhibited mesohabitat overlaps but were segregated at the microhabitat levels. Both species preferred riffles and avoided rocks. Heavy flow (typhoons) had an inhibitory effect on the fish densities. The fishes may not be able to swim against the strong currents and might get carried away downstream. The recovery time (number of days after a peak, when the densities were restored to normalcy) for C. lacustre was = 13 days and for R. candidianus, it was = 16 days. Recovery was faster at the downstream (~13-15 days) as opposed to upstream (~1416 days). Direct estimation of the linkage between the hydrological or geomorphological variables and the well being of fish populations is one of the first steps in formulating an efficient, effective conservation plan or restoration strategy to preserve these species for the future.

ABSTRACT

The process of developing new crop varieties involves many steps and takes several years. In recent times, biotechnological advances have helped in reducing these considerably. Apart from the techniques of haploid culture and genetic engineering, one of the tools which is making it easier for scientists to select plant traits and develop new varieties is the use of molecular markers. Molecular markers can be used for (a) characterization of germplasm (b) varietal identification and clonal fidelity testing (c) assessment of genetic diversity (d) validation of genetic relationships and (e) marker- assisted selection. These have widespread applications in management of genetic resources as well as in breeding programmes. Marker-assisted selection has practically revolutionized breeding programmes. Traditionally, plant breeders have selected plants based on their visible or measurable traits called the phenotype. But this process can be difficult especially in the case of multigenic or quantitative traits. Molecular markers can be used to trace linkages with traits of importance. In the area of horticulture, this is a very useful tool in tree breeding, where the breeder has to wait for several years for phenotypic expression of the desired trait. A number of DNA marker technologies are now available and rapid advances are being made in the development of more sensitive marker technologies. The techniques involved, the various applications of DNA marker technologies in horticultural crops and future perspectives in the national context have been discussed.

ABSTRACT

Donor-recipient protoplast fusion vis-à-vis cybridization is an effective technique to transfer plasmon-coded traits in cultivated tetraploid (2n=4x=48) potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) from its diploid (2n=2x=24) cross-incompatible wild relatives. However, the method, although attractive, is difficult in terms of not only inactivation of nuclear and plasmonic genomes of the participating donor and recipient protoplasts, but also post- fusion culture and regeneration of putative cybrids. Here, we report an improved method for donor-recipient protoplast fusion and subsequent post-fusion culture and regeneration of electrofused protoplasts in potato. In the present experiment, Solanum verrucosum Schlechtd. (2n=2x=24) accessions CPC 1339 (CGN No. 17774) and HAW 2246 (CGN No. 17766) containing sensitive [Tr^s] plasmon for tetrad-type cytoplasmic male sterility were used as donors and S. tuberosum subsp. tuberosum cvs Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Chipsona-1 and Professor Broekema as recipients. For nuclear inactivation, the in vitro-cultured donor plants were exposed to 1000 Gy of unfiltered γ-rays before protoplast preparation using a revised protoplast isolation medium (PIM) containing 2.0 % Cellulase ‘Onozuka’ RS and 0.25 % Macerozyme R-10. The recipient protoplasts were treated with antimetabolite iodoacetate (1.0 mM ) for 45 min at 10 °C for chondriome inactivation. The protoplasts were aligned in an amplitude of 300 Vcm^-1 for 0.5-1.0 s before being electrofused by one DC pulse of 600-800 Vcm^-1 for 40 μs using a Cell Electrofusion Processor FPH 01001 (Bioelectronics Corporation, Troy, Michigan). The fused protoplasts were immobilized in alginate-plates, and cultured on modified VKM medium containing 0.3 M glucose at about 400 mOsmol (pH 5.6). After 8-10 weeks, the developing protocalluses were dissociated from alginate-plates and cultured for regeneration on MS medium supplemented with varying concentrations of zeatin/ zeatin riboside and gibberellic acid. The protocalluses derived from electrofusion between donor S. verrucosum accession CPC 1339 and recipient S. tuberosum cv. Kufri Chipsona-1 could be successfully regenerated into plantlets. Morphological as well as molecular-genetic characterization of regenerated microplants, both for nuclear and chondriome genomes, confirmed the putative cybridity as well as established the extent and pattern of mitochondrial recombination following donor-recipient protoplast fusion. The results have been discussed in relation to donor-recipient protoplast fusion approach and its potential application in potato genetic improvement.

5.1. Determination of Soil Moisture

5.1.1. Determination of Soil Moisture Content by Gravimetric Method (Direct method)

Traditionally water content in soil is expressed as the ratio of the weight of water present in the soil to the weight of dry soil. When this ratio is multiplied by 100, it becomes the percentage of water in the soil sample on dry weight basis.

10.1. Determination of Soil pH

The soil pH value is the measure of hydrogen or hydroxyl ion activity in the soil solution and it indicates whether the soil is acidic, neutral or alkaline in reaction. The pH is the most important property of soil as it controls the availability of plant nutrients, microbial activity and physical condition of soil. Since crop growth is affected both under very low (strongly acidic) and very high (strongly alkaline) soil pH, reclamation of these soils are necessary. Soil pH in fact indicates the extent of active acidity (activity of hydrogen ion in soil solution) of soil. Depending upon the purpose of measurement and soil condition, soil pH is measured in several soil-water or soil-salt solution ratios. The saturated paste is used for identifying specific soil problems like degree of acidity or alkalinity. For making fertilizer recommendation, 1: 2 soil-water suspension is generally adopted. To mask the variability in salt content of the soil, the pH is measured in soil-CaCl₂ suspension (1:2 soil-0.1 M CaCl₂ solution). The soil pH value is independent of dilution over a wide range of soil-salt solution ratio, thus more reproducible than those obtained with soil-water suspension.

11.1. Determination of Electrical Conductivity of Soil Solution

The conductivity or more precisely the specific conductance of a soil at a given soil-water ratio is the reciprocal of the specific resistance offered by the solution at 25ºC between the electrodes of 1 sq cm cross section kept 1 cm apart. Thus, the electrical conductivity of any solution depends on the amount of soluble salt present in it. Knowledge on the extent of salinity is important for management of saline soil including the choice of the crop suitable for that soil. Soluble salt content in saturation extract is more reliable index of salinity level than in soil: water ratio of 1: 2 or 1: 2.5 because it simulates the extent of salinity experienced by crop in field moisture condition.

Salinity class of soil is based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of saturation extract at 25ºC. However, EC of water extract from 1:2 soil-water suspension can be transformed into the EC of saturation extract following the formula (except for soil containing gypsum).

Introduction

The importance of food security and its management world over has been recognized long back. The World Food Summit in 1974, called in response to the persistent and widespread under-nutrition and the future role of agriculture, stressed upon establishment of committee to review and recommend location specific action plan in sensitive areas. Asserting that every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition in order to develop their physical and mental faculties, an international undertaking on world food security was set up in which member nations committed to maintain food stocks to ensure routine and emergency food supplies (in case of crop failure, natural disaster, etc.). Monitoring the implementation of such undertaking has since then become the responsibility of the Committee on World Food Security.

Introduction

Agriculture provides unique solution to various developmental issues including poverty and hunger. World Development Report (2008) reveals that the agricultural growth has significantly contributed to the decline in poverty world over (as in China and Latin America). Though the non-agriculture sector pays more dividend, and grows steeply, the capital generated, however benefits a few (mostly urban areas) thus leading to uneven distribution of income. Whereas, the development of agriculture, which employs most of the rural population, is expected to benefit a large section of the population simultaneously and uniformly. It is in this context that this report predicts agriculture as a vital development tool for achieving Millennium Development Goal that calls for halving by 2015 the share of people suffering from extreme poverty and hunger.

Introduction

The world’s population is expected to grow from 6 billion people in 2000 to 7.5 billion people in 2020. Availability of land for farming is on the decline, and water for agriculture and other uses is increasingly scarce. Together these and other forces will challenge the capacity of the world’s food production system. The world has experienced an unprecedented increase in population during the past century, with a billion people added every decade during the last three decades alone. Dramatic shifts in production and consumption of food have accompanied this population explosion, including a surge in grain production, a spectacular rise in meat production and consumption, and the emergence of an increasingly vital role for international trade (Fig. 1). High-yielding varieties of wheat and rice swept across much of Asia during the 1970s and early 1980s, easing fears of imminent famine. Cereal yields have risen more modestly in recent years, but they have still outstripped gains in other crops such as cassava, potatoes, and beans.