eChapters

I. INTRODUCTION
Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. Horticulture crops cover over 23.4 million hectares of area, which is approximately 12.7% of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output (NHB, 2013). India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 77.7 million metric tonnes of fruit and 159.5m M tonnes of vegetables (NHB, 2013). Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic plants are also produced. The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut, 36% green peas, 10% onion and 30% cauliflower and accounts for 12% of world fruit and 13.25% of vegetable production (NHB, 2013). Owing to wide diversity of agro climatic conditions, almost all types of temperate (apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherries and nuts), subtropical (mango, guava, papaya, etc), tropical (banana, pineapple etc), arid fruit (ber and aonla), plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and arecanut) and diverse variety of vegetables are grown in India. The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84 Lakh tonnes valued at Rs 2411.70 crores. Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies were the major items of export. Similarly, India exported 5.97 Lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2818.1 crores (APEDA, 2012) (Table 1 to 3).

The basic processing and preservation techniques such as canning, freezing, dehydration, salting, pickling and freeze drying are designed to change perishable foods into more usable form and prevent undesirable changes caused by microorganisms, or by chemical, physical and biochemical reactions in the food itself. Hence an ideal processing technology would involve prevention of growth of microorganisms and at the same time retention of f lavor, texture, nutritive value and palatability of the products.

Processing and Preservation

Processing and preservation is the best way of utilizing surplus production of fruits during seasonal gluts.

Milk is a highly perishable commodity. The shelf life of raw milk is in hours. In order to harness its full potential for the well being of the humanity, it is essential to extend its shelf life not only in days but also in months and years. This can be achieved by judicious application of processing and preservation technologies.

Preservation is any purposeful treatment or processing of a food which prevents spoilage and extends the shelf life of raw material to a longer than its natural keeping quality.

During storage and distribution foods are exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, oxygen and light can trigger several reactions that may lead to food deterioration. As a result foods may be altered to such an extent that they are either rejected by the consumer or are harmful to the person consuming them. It is, therefore, essential that the good knowledge of different reactions that cause food deterioration is gained prior to understanding the principles of food preservation.

The deterioration in foods may be caused either due to internal or external chemical or microbial reactions occurring in milk. The changes may be either latent to senses of consumer, or they may be discernible by the human senses. The consumer cannot perceive latent changes visually, olfactorily or otherwise, and laboratory measurements are the only method to detect them. Still the nutritional value of such materials may be seriously impaired. Such changes include fermentation, oxidation of lipids, loss of vitamins and changes in the contents and composition of nitrogenous substances.

Non-microbial changes in foods, perceptible to human senses, may often lead to serious deterioration noticeable to the average consumer. These include discolouration and changes in odor, taste and consistency. Microbial changes may result in alteration of original properties of milk making it unfit for further processing, deterioration in flavour quality, loss of nutrients and toxin production.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables are an important supplement to the human diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and fibre required for maintaining health. For various reasons, this abundance of production is not fully utilized and about 25-30% of it is wasted due to spoilage. Most of fruits and vegetables are seasonal crops and perishable in nature. In a good season there may be a local glut, particularly of fruits, but because of insufficient transport facilities and poor availability of packing materials, the surplus cannot be taken quickly enough to the natural markets in urban areas. Moreover, the surplus often cannot be stored for sale in the off-season because of inadequate local cold storage facilities. Thus the growers do not get a good price for their produce because of the glut and some of it is spoiled resulting in complete loss.

Fruit trees like ber, aonla, jamun, tamarind, custard apple, bael, lasora, phalsa, ker, pilu, etc well suited for arid environment, remained under exploited owing particularly to lack of appreciation of their quality as fruits, their economic potential and above all due to non-availability of the needed technology for their profitable cultivation. Because of their curative properties, these fruits have been used in Indian system of medicine such as Ayurvedic and Unani since time immemorial. Apart from their nutritive and medicinal values, quite a few of these underutilized fruits have excellent flavour and very attractive colour. In spite of these quality attributes, most have not undergone any conscious phase of domestication and human selection. Their cultivation is very restricted and they grow mainly wild. Being tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses, these fruit species are suitable for growing in the disaster- and drought-prone areas.India has a rich heritage of indigenous fruit types. Significant advances have been made in recent times towards providing technology support for their cultivation.

Introduction

It is the process of retaining food over a period of time without being contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals and without losing its colour, texture, flavour and nutritious value. It involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which causes rancidity

Objective

• To increase its shelf life, retaining original nutritional values, colour, texture, and favour.

A biological sample received in the laboratory should be processed as below:

Fresh Green Sample: During metabolism trial period it is always advisable to take a sample of fresh green fodder daily so as to  avoid chemical composition variation from place-to-place in a field. Take about two and half kilo sample from the bulk, cut the whole plant including the stem and stalks with a pair of scissors into small pieces and mix thoroughly. Weigh about 100g accurately in the aluminium tray 23156cm approximately for estimation of moisture. It is always recommended to weigh the sample immediately in the laboratory so as to avoid the losses of moisture.

Introduction

GIS (Geographical Information System) based mapping takes cogence of three major geometrical dimensions, point, line and polygons and in GIS these three features correlate their relationship through a concept called Topology. Among the various applications where covariate processing requires specific attention, the landuse/ land cover and Digital Elevation Models/surfaces or terrains are the major area of interest. Use and processing of data for these covariates carries importance as accuracy of both these aspects would influence the derivatives extracted out of them further. For example, if landuse is improperly defined, the site for which planning is proposed may not sustain, similarly, point data/elevation data in case of DEMs would decide the exact topography of any landforms for their further utilization. For their use in GIS, while DEMs depend upon point data, the landuse/ land cover will be taken care by polygons. For the purpose of the study, we are going to discuss about these two covariates in the following paragraphs.

Generally, Covariate (covariable) (koh-vair-iãt) in statistics is defined as a continuous variable that is not part of the main experimental manipulation but has an effect on the dependent variable. In other words, as per ANCOVA (Analysis of covariance) definition: a covariate is a control variable.

Vegetable seed cleaning and processing are two important aspects of seed post-harvest management. These steps are very essential to maintain the quality of the seed till its next sowing season. The quality of seed produced is dependent on the moisture content and various admixtures. To provide quality seed to farmers, it is very essential to clean seed to its maximum quality. The seed quality attributes like moisture, free water activity, to be controlled in germination, vigor and viability are upgraded during seed cleaning.

Seed cleaning is the term used as a part of processing means separation of admixtures from a particular seed lot. The physical characters like bigger clods, sand, soil, chaffy material, inert matter etc. will be removed during seed cleaning. Seed processing on the other hand is relatively broad term referring to the process of removal of dockage in a seed lot and preparation of seed for marketing is called seed processing. The price and quality of seed is inversely related to dockage, which should not exceed a maximum level permitted for different crops for seed certification. Due to the operation of processing the level of heterogeneity of seed lot gets narrowed down. The heterogeneity occurs in a seed lot due to following reasons:

Stomach and intestines are important part of animal body.  Stomach mainly constitutes rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasums. In which rumen, reticulum and omasum are utilized in form of edible uses, petfood and meat meal while abomasums can be converted into petfood and meat meal but abomasums of suckling calf can be utilized in extraction of rennet. Sheep rumen can also be utilized as haggis casings and pig stomach can be processed as petfood, pepsin, haggis casings and chitterlings. Organic content obtained from stomach and intestines can be utilized in form of compost, fertilizer and sometimes as feed. Intestine is also constitutes large intestine (colon, caecum and rectum), small intestine and oesophagus. In which large intestine and small intestine if not in condition to convert in casings can be utilized by rendering in form of meat meal.

ABSTRACT

Banana plants areextensively known for their fruits butby-products (pseudostem, root, leave, male banana flower, and banana peel) from banana farms also have potential applicability because recycleprocess of these wastes can convert waste of banana farms into an outstandingresource of valuable raw materials for other industries. This practice avoids huge losses of unused biomass and environmental hazards. Banana flowers are discarded in banana farms during the harvesting of banana fruit bunches and produce a great amount of agricultural waste. Consumption of banana flower as a vegetable is trendy in some parts of Asian countries but the cleaning process of banana flower is an unwieldy practice because of the time and the laborengaged in separating the calyx and the pistil portion of these flowersbefore processing. Itis an abundant source of well-balanced essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, dietaryfiber, vitamins, minerals,and flavonoids. This flower also having tremendous medicinal properties as they possess several secondary metabolites. Thepresent review discusses the transformation of this agricultural waste into a different value-added product. The transformation of banana flowers into highly commercial outputs can be beneficial forsupplementary income to small scale farming industries.

Keywords: Banana, Banana flower, By-product, Value-added product, Antioxidant, Pre-treatments, Processing.

Yogurt is a fermented milk product that contains the characteristic bacterial cultures such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. All yogurts must contain at least 8.25% solids not fat.

17.1. Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crops. These plantation crops are perennial in nature and cultivation of these crops generates considerable employment opportunities during on farm and off farm processing activities. The plantation crops are high value industrial crops contributing about 25% of AGDP. India is a largest consumer of tea accounts for 22% global tea consumption and also accounts for one-fifth of global tea area. Indian coffee industry also have prime place among plantation crops and also contributing 4% coffee to global market. Similarly, rubber plantations also provides basic raw material to toys, balloon, tyres, seed oil cake and rubber wood factory. The plantation crops along with main processed products also produce large quantity of biomass like husk, coir dust, coffee husk, tea waste, shedding etc which can effectively used to reduce nutrient requirements of crops. Parchment coffee prepared by using the wet method is generally favoured by the market. Cherry coffee, due to its very nature of preparation and longer contact with the mucilage and fruit skin, is usually associated with a characteristic fermenting flavour.

Processing of fruits  and vegetables into various products which could be preserved for a long time and add to value of product using proper cost effective technology will be a viable tool for improving   economic status of  farmer as well as our country. Modern methods of fruit and vegetable preservation are  broadly classified as follows:

Introduction

Consumers are nowadays very much concerned about the food they purchase and consume. Consumer wants the food containing antioxidant properties or can say functional food in safe and stable forms, so that the availability of daily requirements of functional food ingredient must be ensured for normal growth and development of the body. The functional food that can provide a health benefit such as increased dietary fibre, vitamins or minerals to the body. The incorporation of antioxidant compounds acts as an efficient way to fight against reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in our body. As it is already known that the ROS causes oxidative stress and acts as a main trigger for different life threatening chronic diseases like cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, aging etc. Therefore, seeing the consumers’ demand for value added products with bioactive ingredients, all small and large scale food industries are taking initiatives to process different types of food (fruits, vegetables, dairy, sea food, animal, microbial products etc.) to extract and purify its active fraction of functional ingredients to valorize different value added products. Functional ingredients may also be derived from different food wastes generated during processing of food. This practice provides additional economic benefits to food businesses. Food industries are also giving importance to different processing methods to extract high quality of functional food ingredients in large quantity because processing method affects the concentration of extracted bioactive compounds. The simple addition of functional ingredients may cause an unwanted and negative change of sensory and texture of food. Therefore, using novel processing technologies such as microencapsulation, the negative changes could be minimized or avoided because these technologies could prevent the inactivation of bioactive ingredients.

Abstract

The objectives of the study is to help to create self-employment and provide proper information for different conventional milk based products. Traditional dairy foods have always played a crucial role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its use among masses. The demand for milk and milk products is increasing with increasing of world's population. To meet these needs, high-end technology is needed for emerging the capability of milk production and preserving it by producing high quality milk products. The dairy industry is highly localized owing to perishable nature of milk products. Approximately 50% of the total milk produced in India has been projected to be processed into a variety of conventional milk products, such as khoa, chhena, paneer, dahi, ghee, kalakand and a wide range of sweets in rural areas mostly by the rural citizens. Therefore, setting up a milk-based food production system and updating conventional technologies to manage milk-based products on a commercial scale is very important.

Processing

On arrival in the laboratory, the specimens are processed immediately or refrigerated until processed. For inoculation into animal/cell culture/embryonated eggs (EE), swabs are shaken in fluid medium, faeces are dispersed in fluid medium and tissue specimens are homogenized in a high speed blender/pestle and mortar with the help of an abrasive like powdered glass or sand. Good quality hard sand should be properly washed in distilled water, treated with HCl, washed thoroughly, dried and sterilized before use. Generally the infective tissue is homogenized in a few ml of buffer usually having a pH of 7.2 to 7.3 to make about 10% tissue suspension. The suspension is centrifuged at about 1000g for 10-15 minutes to sediment the tissue debris and coarse materials.

5.1 Introduction
The process of milk processing entails the transformation of liquid milk into dairy products, including pasteurised liquid milk, yoghurt, butter, cheese, and ghee. The following are the rationales for processing: There are numerous benefits to processing milk, including the ability to access distant markets, the extension of the product’s storage life, and the attraction of higher prices because of its enhanced transportability. Furthermore, processed products are less cumbersome and lighter, which facilitates transportation. The refining of milk improves its quality and hygienic safety, enabling the production of a variety of milk products, including cheese and liquid milk, to satisfy the diverse needs of consumers. Additionally, the processing industry contributes to economic development by creating employment. Small-scale processors are capable of producing a wide range of dairy products. Before determining which dairy products the group will produce, it is recommended that a comprehensive market/feasibility study be conducted. Milk products can be processed in the manner depicted in the image.

FRUIT TOFFEES

Fruit toffees can be prepared from different fruits like apricot, plum, apple and other fruits. Concentrate the fruit pulp to about half of its volume by cooking with sugar and other ingredients. Milk powder should be added in the form of paste. Heavy stirring is required till it hardens enough on cooling.

16.1. Introduction

Plantation crops are high value industrial crops grown in the tropics play a vital role in agricultural economy and export trade of developing countries. Plantation crops have great potential for utilization of waste land like rainfed dry land, hilly, arid and coastal areas to provide nutritional security, earn foreign exchange and to ensure livelihood security. The major plantation crops grown in India are tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera), arecanut (Areca catechu L.), oilpalm (Elaeis guinensis), cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum). India is the leading producer of most of these plantation crops. Among all fruit crops, the processing plays an important role in plantation crops as they are generally consumed only after processing. In addition to primary products which are exported largely, some by-products from these crops also have industrial as well as commercial uses. Coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, black pepper and cardamom are known as small holder plantations whereas, crops like rubber, tea and coffee are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crop. Coir, wood and shell from coconut, leaf sheath in arecanut, cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) and feni from cashew are some of by-products with a great impact and demand in the market.

44.1. Aim

To conduct practical on processing of tea and coffee.

44.2. Theory

Tea is an evergreen woody perennial grown in many Asian countries including China, Japan, Java, Sumatra and India. The plant produces dark green, small shiny leaves with white blossom. In post harvest and manufacturing practices for tea, only mechanical and physical processes are allowed with natural fermentation. It can be manufactured by orthodox, CTC (crush, tear and curl) processing.

Coffee is an important beverage used all over the world. Brazil and Columbia are the largest coffee producers in the world. Coffee is harvested in one of two ways; strip picking (entire crop is harvested at one time either by machine or by hand); selective picking (only the ripe berries are picked individually by hand) during dry season when cherries are bright red, glossy and firm. After picking, the coffee can be prepared either by dry method which produces natural coffee or by wet method which produces washed coffee.

Introduction
Plantation crops are high-value industrial crops grown in the tropics and coastal areas. They have great potential for utilization of wasteland like rainfed dry land, hilly, arid, and coastal areas to provide nutritional security; earn foreign exchange, and ensure livelihood security. The major plantation crops grown in India are tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), rubber (Havea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera), areca nut (Areca catechu L.), oil palm (Elaeis guinensis), cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.) and cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). India is the leading producer of most of
these plantation crops. Among all fruit crops, processing plays an important role in plantation crops as they are generally consumed only after processing. In addition to primary products, some by-products from these crops also have various commercial uses. Coconut, areca nut, cashew nut, black pepper, and cardamom are known as smallholder plantations whereas, crops like rubber, tea, and coffee are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crops. Processing aspects of some of these crops are discussed here:

Aim of the Experiment: The composite soil samples, collected, are air-dried and processed before analysis in the laboratory.

The processing of wool encompasses multiple stages that convert raw fleece into functional fabric or yarn. Each phase in the wool processing procedure is vital in influencing the ultimate quality and appropriateness of the wool product for diverse uses. Below is a concise overview of the steps involved in wool processing:
1. Shearing or pulling
2. Skirting
3. Washing or scouring
4. Carding
5. Combing
6. Spinning
7. Dyeing
8. Weaving and knitting
9. Finishing
10. Packaging

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the four most important food crops of the world, the other three being rice, wheat and maize. It is a high yielding and nutritive crop and produces highest dry matter, carbohydrates, edible protein, minerals and vitamin C and B per unit of area and time. In view of the shrinking cultivable land area and increasing population of India, the potato has a high potential to solve the problems of hunger and malnutrition in our country. But, potato is a perishable commodity and its harvest time (February/March) in Indo-Gangetic plains (which account for nearly 87% of the country’s potato production) coincides with steep rise in ambient temperatures. From April onwards, temperatures start shooting up and the produce has either to be consumed within a short period of time or is required to be preserved in the cold stores. Due to inadequate, expensive and unevenly distributed refrigerated storage facilities in the country, there have been frequent gluts in the market causing substantial economic losses to farmers and wastage of precious food. Such gluts occur every 3 to 5 years. The glut years are followed by a reduction in potato area and production leading to high potato prices in alternate years which again encourage farmers to increase potato area in subsequent years resulting again in a glut situation and price crashes. This boom and bust cycle has thus continued for long (Pandey et al., 2009).

Introduction

Agricultural production is necessary to fulfil nutritional requirements for human populations and global food security. The agricultural sector also forms the economic backbone of many low-income countries in which millions of farmers are employed (Anushka et al, 2022). However, managing agricultural production to achieve multiple objectives of providing food, supporting livelihoods and protecting biodiversity and forests is a challenge especially in tropical, low-income countries (Anushka et al, 2022). Usually, the growth in global agricultural production is largely driven by commercial and export oriented commodities. One such agricultural commodity that has high global demand is cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Cashew is presently cultivated in 33 countries including India in the world. Global land area for cashew cultivation between 1980 and 2018 has seen an eleven-fold increase from 526,250 ha to 5,972,724 ha (Anushka et al, 2022).

Coconut, arecanut and palmyrah, which hold significant cultural and historical importance in India, have been the primary focus of cultivation efforts. Cocoa, a relatively recent addition to India, serves as a companion crop to coconut and arecanut, contributing to the economic well-being of farmers nationwide. However, the current situation emphasizes the crucial role of value addition and product diversification in stabilizing prices. Despite the initial stages of value addition in India’s palm crops, recent innovations and established value chains have the potential to empower farmers as entrepreneurs, thereby augmenting their income. Moreover, the value-added products from these palms have enormous export potential. This chapter explores the advancements in value-added products and the diversification of coconut, arecanut, palmyrah, and cocoa, providing insights into opportunities for cottage or small-scale industries.

Oil palm is a major source of edible oil globally and plays a crucial role in meeting the dietary needs of millions of people. India has been focusing on expanding oil palm cultivation to reduce its dependence on imported edible oils. Oil palm can yield high oil compared to other vegetable oils. Palm oil production rate depends on post-harvest handling, and milling and extraction processes. After harvesting, some quality changes occur in oil palm fresh fruit bunches which leads to reduce the oil quantity and quality. With proper handling of post-harvest bunches and adapting best extraction methods can increase the oil yield and quality. Palm oil alone has the potential to make India sustainable in edible oil production.

Introduction

Oil palm (Elaesis guineensis Jacq.) originated in the tropical rain forest of western Africa and is now being cultivated in more than 45 countries around the world especially tropical regions i.e., Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Columbia, and Ghana. This crop was introduced in India during the early 1990s, to meet the demand and to attain sustainable edible oil production in India due to its high oil-yielding capacity compared to other vegetable oil crops. It produces two distinct oils, i.e., palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm oil is derived from fleshy mesocarp of the fruit and palm kernel oil obtained from the kernel of stony seed.

India is bestowed with varied climatic conditions and a variety of horticultural crops are produced. It is estimated that 20-30% of the produce is lost before consumption because of various reasons including improper storage and this is where the need of processing for preservation arises. There are various ways of preserving the produce and various ways to process it.

Preservation is defined as methods of extending the shelf life of the produce in its original form or in a different usable form. The basic principle of preservation involves strategies which aim at reducing the spoilage. The horticulture produce is spoiled by microbial infection or infestation. Prevention of microbial damage can be achieved by keeping the produce away from microbes, by removing the microbes, obstructing the proliferation and by killing the microbes. Infestation in the harvested fruits may lead to other microbial infection and spoilage due to rotting.

Post Harvest Technology

Introduction

The demand for edible oil has grown with the increase in world population. Improvement in living standards have made the population increase the consumption of oils and fats. It also has become more discriminating with respect to the oil quality. Oil producers, have to meet the increasing demand for edible oil, and improve product quality and variety as these have become major factors in the market-place.

Agriculture has been tuned through selective seed breeding and improved crop production practices to take care of the increasing demand. The emphasis has been to improve yield per hectare or tolerance to climatic variations. The ability to modify seed through traditional breeding and biotechnological approaches promises a revolution in agriculture. Using various approaches, not only quantitative improvement but also the qualitative changes especially fatty acid changes have been brought about. Customer support is needed for the genetically modified crops. A lot of controversy exists at present in accepting genetically modified crops. This aspect has to be studied in depth and needs to be resolved at the appropriate level as quickly as possible.

A prerequisite for the production of top quality oils and meals is a high quality raw material. Some attempts have been made to improve the physical characteristics of oils and meals through genetic, agronomic as well as through post production handling and processing technologies. The harvested quality grain should not be damaged during transportation, storage and processing. To produce a crude oil, the industry uses a number of processing steps, the application of which depends on the type of seed and the scale of the operation.

The purpose of Post Harvest Technology of oilseeds is to recover the maximum quantity of good quality oil and also make the deoiled cake useful as food or feed. Oil in oilseeds is located in spherosomes, which are the oil bodies (Salunkhe et al, 1992). When seeds are broken into small particles and the cells get ruptured the oil becomes available and is easily extracted. From the time of harvest, till the seeds are fed to the oil extracting machines, various processes are carried out to make good quality of oil available to the consumer apart from providing remunerative prices to the producer, namely, the farmer. The various steps involved in the oil extraction are proper harvest, drying, storage, seed cleaning, heat treatment and different types of machinery. The basic objective of every step in the post harvest technology is to minimize losses and to sustain or improve the quality of the product.

Procurement is acquisition of goods and services.
Procurement includes:
• Planning the acquisition
• Planning the contracting
• Requesting proposals 
• Selecting a vendor
• Administering the contract
• Closing the contract 

Planning the acquisition

It is based on goals of an enterprise acquisition varies – depends on what, when and where to produce. Based on these factors acquisition requirements are arrived.

1. At times of distress sales

a) Marketed surplus < Marketable surplus

b) Marketed surplus > Marketable surplus

c) Marketed surplus = Marketable surplus

d) Zero marketed surplus

2. For durable goods, under normal pricing conditions

a) Marketed surplus < Marketable surplus

b) Marketed surplus > Marketable surplus

c) Marketed surplus = Marketable surplus

d) Zero marketed surplus

Introduction
The sun is the primary source of energy for all life on Earth. The primary energy source for the majority of ecosystems is limited to this one. Photosynthesis is performed by green plants, certain types of algae, and microorganisms. They utilize solar energy to fuel chemical reactions that combine basic inorganic components to create intricate organic chemicals. Elements undergo a cyclical process as they move through the different compartments of an ecosystem.
Photosynthesis is the process by which solar energy is captured and transformed into food in the form of chemical energy. Food comprises fundamental elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other necessary elements, along with stored energy. The components present in the food undergo recycling. The flow of energy and nutrients begins with the producers, then moves to the consumers, and ultimately returns to the producers through the activity of decomposers. Energy, in contrast to materials, is not subject to recycling. Food traverses the food web, resulting in energy dissipation. Typically, just a mere 10% of the energy accumulated in a certain trophic
level, such as the producers, is effectively passed on to the subsequent trophic level, such as the herbivores. This is referred to as the energy pyramid. Ultimately, the energy available in the trophic level becomes so depleted that it cannot sustain any higher trophic levels. Consequently, the presence of fourth order consumers in any ecosystem is extremely rare.
The biotic component, often known as the life component of the environment, encompasses a diverse array of plants, animals, and bacteria, which form interconnected communities.

18.1 Introduction

The farmers have limited resources and a number of enterprises/or enterprise combinations of crops and livestock to choose from. So, the question is how much of what to produce and with what technology. In other words, what combination of enterprises should be produced is expressed as.

Product

Anything that possesses utility is described as goods. A product is both what a seller sell and what a buyer has to buy. 

According to Phillip Kotler: A product is anything that can be offered in a market for attention acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need. It includes physical objects, services, persons, places, organisation and ideas.

According to Stanton: A product is a set of tangible and intangible attributes, including packaging, colour, price, manufacturer’s prestige, retailer prestige and services which the buyer may accept as offering satisfaction or wants or needs.

The floriculture has become an important sector all over world. In India, floriculture has been associated with culture and heritage since very ancient time. In recent decades there has been increasing in demand of floriculture products with increasing income. It is souring industry in Asian countries including India. Floriculture is an emerging area with great potential both in the domestic as well as export market.In India, commercial floriculture is ongoing development but have a long tradition of various types of flowers.Floriculture was being cultivated in 3.5 lakh hectares in the country and 250 varieties of flowers exist in the country.Besides potted plants, roses, carnation, orchids and chrysanthemum are important cut flowers, which are popular in our country. In the increasingly competitive international cut flower and pot plant market, new and novelty ornamental plants plays an important role in stabilization and expanding market share. Always novelty has been considered as an important attribute in ornamental industry. The consumer choice is also changing for product quality level depending upon purpose of purchase, as well as for higher levels of services and a wider and deeper assessment suggesting product diversification. The increasing pace of agricultural transformation in India has been characterized by widening share of commercial crops in the overall basket. Among others, horticulture has shown great promise because of the availability of high-value domestic and international market against the low production base so far. Understandably, it has received special attention of policy-makers and being termed as the sunrise industry within agriculture. India, with its varied agro-climate is ideally suited for growing several types of flowers in different seasons. Although traditional ornamental crops will continue to play key role in the floriculture trade, a distinct trend towards increasing the share of new crops is clearly evident in recent years often referred to as ‘specialty flowers’, these are cut flowers, which are not widely known and also grown in small pockets but have high prospects in the international market. There are over 60 types of new ornamentals, which have been reported to hold potential for commercial utility. Some progressive growers in India have already initiated the process of introducing new ornamental crops in their fields.These new products normally fetch high prices than the traditional crops for a certain period, but quite often the prices drop when market is saturated. By that time new products should be ready to enter the market. In this context introduction of new ornamental crops is therefore continuous effort.

1. Introduction

Product development is a basic activity in the food industry. Each company has a product mix, often including hundreds of products, which are constantly evolving - old products dying, products reaching maturity, products contributing to rapid growth and new products being introduced.

In the food industry, just as any other industry, product and process development is considered a vital part – indeed the lifeblood – of smart business strategy. Failure to develop new and improved products relegates firms to competing solely on price which favours the players with access to the lowest cost inputs (land, labour etc). Product and process development (commonly referred to as product development) is systematic, commercially oriented research to develop products and processes satisfying a known or suspected consumer need. Product development is a method of industrial research in its own right. There are essentially four basic stages in the model product development process.

Introduction

Having decided to become an agri-preneur, the next task is to decide what business to venture into, the product or range of products that shall be taken up for manufacture and in what quantity. This may sound simple, it is the hardest and the single most important decision one will take in this whole business of setting up a small-scale enterprise. As the old saying goes “well begun is half done”, and if the decision to select a product is right, basically enterprise will do well, if not there are likely to be troubles ahead. One of the reasons why many small scale units become “sick” is that no serious thought is given by the entrepreneur before starting the unit on whether there is reasonable chance of succeeding in the product selected.

Even after one has taken a correct decision, all sorts of things can happen and upset the plans, but in such cases, one can retrieve the situation, provided the product selected is intrinsically sound. There could be factors beyond control and one must be prepared to face them.

1. What does the term PLC stands for?

a) Product long cycle

b) Production life cycle

c) Product life cycle

d) Production long cycle

2. Which of the following is not the stage of Product Life Cycle?

a) Introduction Stage

b) Peak stage

c) Decline stage

d) Mature stage

3. When a new product enter into the market with higher quality and new features better than its competitors, those products are known as__________

Nutraceutical is a broad term which represents any substance extracted from food sources with additional health benefits alongside the good nutritional value already present in them. The nutraceutical term was originated by Stephen De Felice in 1989.

1. Introduction

Fruits and vegetables in fresh form in general contain very high water content, with the fast rate of metabolic activity, including respiration rate, which may vary with the fruit type. Accordingly, the storage life at room temperature is considerably less, to expect acceptable quality. A range of transformational changes occur in various features of the fruits and vegetables, such as color, flavor, texture, structure, sweetness, sourness, pungency, astringency and so on. Phenolic browning of mushrooms, intensive softening of papaya, coloration and softening of ripe banana, softening of pear and jackfruit , flavor transformations of mango, banana and jackfruit after ripening, their color and texture transformations, are classic examples of post-harvest changes in fresh commodities, over a course of storage period at room temperature. These physical and sensorial perceptions of fresh commodities over a length of storage period are based on the range and multitude of operations of physical, chemical and bio-chemical reactions occurring in various constituents of the fresh fruit or vegetable such as moisture, pigments, vitamins, pectin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, phenolics, lignin, sugars, flavor compounds, amino acids, fatty acids and so on. In order to increase the storage stability, the fresh fruits and vegetables are processed and converted into various products such as juice, RTS beverages, jam, jelly, marmalade, fruit spread, dehydrated, spray dried powder, frozen stored, fruit cereal flakes, canned, candied, fruit bar and so on. Based on the nature of processing, the original form, shape, size, texture and structure are transformed, however with due maintenance in storage acceptability. A number of external factors are applied to achieve this product range such as heat, air velocity, pressure, radiation, chilling, freezing, vacuum impregnation etc. The ultimate quality of the final product is essentially an interaction between and amongst the various chemical constituents so characteristic of each fruit or vegetable under study, and a sum total of positive and negative reactions related to sensorial acceptability of the product. This quality is again a function of the storage period and the conditions of storage. Consumers in modern days are more health conscious to choose between consumption of fresh or processed fruits and vegetables. For trade over distance and time and particularly for geographic regions not producing a particular fruit or vegetable, it is of utmost importance to process the fresh produce. Enzymatic transformations in color, texture and flavor deserve utmost attention to ensure acceptable quality of the processed product, in particular over the course of storage period or until consumed after transportation and marketing. Microbiological quality of the product in final form is a most vital factor of consumers' health and this is dependent on water activity, sugars and protein / amino acid contents. In this regard, additives and preservatives come into picture. Strict regulations are imposed on their use, type and concentration over a storage period, for healthy consumption. Accordingly, this chapter would deal with several examples of processing conditions influencing the quality of the product, that emanates. Processing involving chemical, bio-chemical, engineering, bio-technological and microbiological methods to achieve a product are vivid, varied and different to different species / variety of fruits or vegetables to target different products.

Studies on Volatile Fatty Acids Production and Kinetics of VFA Pool as Determined by Using “Isotope Dilution Technique”

(Method of Krishna and Ekern, 1974a,b and c)
Details of Experiment
Materials
    (i)    Animals : Two fistulated sheep of Dala Texel breed weighing about 72 and 76 kg are selected. 
    (ii)    Experimental Diet :
        Basal Diet : Two experimental sheep are maintained on 1.1 kg early cut timothy hay per day. The ration is divided in four equal parts and offered four times a day during the preliminary period of about twenty days. One day before infusion of labelled VFA, the sheep are fed regularly at one hour interval (1.1 kg hay divided in equal parts) to help in increasing the mixing rate of rumen ingesta. The animals are given water adlibitum but they are not allowed to drink water during infusion. Digestible energy and metabolizable energy (ME) of the basal diet is determined by conducting a separate metabolism trial on the same sheep.

Buffaloes have been classified in two main categories namely riverine and swamp buffaloes depending upon variation in their habitat and genome structure. Riverine buffaloes are generally large in size mostly with curled horns and are mainly found in India, Pakistan and some of the west Asian countries, prefer to enter clear water and have 50 (2n) numbers of chromosomes and are primarily used for milk production and also used for meat production and draught power. Swamp buffaloes are stocky animals with marshy land habitats and have 48 (2n) numbers of chromosomes. They were primarily developed for draught power in paddy fields and haulage and are also used for meat and milk production. Swamp buffaloes are mostly found in south east Asian countries and also in north eastern states of India.

Abstract

India, ranks first in marigold production among the loose flowers followed by chrysanthemum, jasmine and tuberose. Today, there is huge demand for natural colours of marigold, calendula, hibiscus, Petunia etc.in the international market.
 
A study on primary data was done to examine the production and marketing cost and profitability of marigold flowers. Data were collected through multistage sampling technique from farmers of Bhaderwah tehsil of Doda district in Jammu And Kashmir State.

Abstract

In this paper we studied the economics of marigold flower in Eastern Uttar Pradish Floriculture has assumed a definite commercial status. Its potential as a viable agribusiness has also been recognized. Diverse agro-climatic conditions permit perennial production in one part of the country. This sector provides employment to millions. Floriculture was practiced only on small farms but now a few large ones have been set up. The collected information were analyzed and presented in tabular form. Making small size mala on small and large farms were higher than the large size mala. There return per Rupee of investment were estimated that the  1.66, 2.08 and  1.84, in the account of small size, large size farms and overall, respectively. The percentage of total marigold produce sale indifferent marketing channels indicated that 90 per cent produce sold in II marketing channel where as next 10 per cent marigold flowers sold directly to the consumer i.e. channel I. The retailer’s level the marigold flowers were sold to the consumers in different forms such as flower basket, bouquet and in other farms as demanded by the buyers. The marketing cost and marketing margin (Price spread) may differ from the channel to channel. The marketing cost and margins also depend upon the form in which the product reaches the ultimate consumers.

Introduction

India is the largest producer of vegetables in the world after China, contributes over 13% to world vegetable production and occupies first position in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage. Amongst vegetables, India is the largest producer of Ginger and Okra and ranks second in Potatoes production (10%), Onions, Cauliflowers, Brinjal, and Cabbages, etc. During 2012-13, India exported vegetables worth  1516.33 crores. The average productivity of vegetables in the country is 17.61 t/ha.

Metabolic disorders are classed as illness associated with a failure in one of the body hormone or enzyme systems, storage disease related to lack of metabolism of secretory products because of the lack of production of a specific enzyme, or the failure or reduced activity of some metabolic function. There are numerous genetic, metabolic disorders in poultry but these are rare in commercial poultry. In poultry it is usual to include under the heading of metabolic disorders those conditions associated with increased metabolism, rapid growth rate or high egg production that result in the failure of a body system because of the increased work-load on that organ or system. Metabolic disorders that result from an increase production of, or deficiency of or failure in the production, synthesis, or transport of an enzyme, hormone or secretary mechanism. Metabolic disorders that result from high nutrient intake, rapid growth, high metabolic rate, pulmonary or systemic hypertension, and high egg production or a rapid increase in egg production. Other conditions that could be classed as metabolic disorders related to: (a) management defects; (b) nutritional deficiency or excess; (c) infectious agents; (d) toxins.

Definition
Production and operations management is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so as to provide the desired utility/utilities —of form, place, possession or state or a combination thereof—to the customer while meeting the other organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. It distinguishes itself from the other functions such as personnel, marketing etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion by using physical resources’. Figure 1.1 describes a generalized concept of production system. It takes resource inputs and processes them to produce useful outputs in the form of goods or services.

Centuries before Greece and Rome were discovered, sailing ships carried Indian spices, perfumes and textiles to Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt. It was the lure of these that brought many seafarers to the shores of India. Emperors, kings, senators and the aristocracy transformed spices into the mostly highly prized commodities of ancient trade routes The story of Indian Spices is more than 7000 years old. By the 1400s, when navigational equipment had improved to the point that long-haul sailing became possible, European rulers set out to change the balance of world trade by funding spice-hunting missions of their own. Christopher Columbus who, in searching for a quick route to India, reached the Americas. Vasco de Gama was the first to surround Africa, and with a crew led by Ferdinand Magellan, fully circumnavigated the globe.

India is known as the food basket of the world. It is the second largest producer of fruit till now after China, but its contribution to the Global market of fruit processing is just 1per cent. This is due to the fact that there is deficiency of skilled manpower, poor cold storage facilities, inefficient post-harvest management and minimal technological interventions.
Deficiency of the skilled manpower: In-spite of market size of US dollar 181 billion, expenditure on food and food products being 21per cent of India’s GDP and more than 31per cent share of wallet by consumers, there is resultant apprehension about the emergency emerging skill shortages due to mismatch between the demand for specific skills and available supply. Shortage of skilled, Semi- skilled and unskilled workers has emerged as a critical factor impacting the competitiveness of Indian food industry. Efficient man-power is one such critical element to improve to foster the growth. As the food industry advances and adopts various levels of automation the demand of skilled manpower will increase phenomenally. Hence if, the Indian food industry must achieve projected growth target set and become globally competitive, the need to develop and train the human resource efficiently would be essential.