eChapters

Botanical Name: Cocos nucifera L. Family: Arecaceae / Palmae Chromosome No: 32 Place of Origin: Malaysia Common Name: Coconut 2.1 Introduction Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), is widely known as ‘Kalpavriksha’ (i.e., tree of heaven) as each and every part of the palm is useful in one way or the other and is an important perennial oil yielding crop of humid tropics. It provides food security and livelihood opportunities to 20 million people around the globe and 10 million people in India (Chowdappa et al., 2017). Even though India is the largest coconut growing country in the world, its contribution to the export market is not significant. Coconut as an edible oil and food crop, is now slowly transforming into raw material for various pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic products. Coconut is rich in fibre, vitamins and minerals. Because of its health benefits beyond its nutritional content, it has been considered as “functional food”. Hence, there exists a huge scope for coconut-based agribusiness in India, which will increase the present 8% level of value addition to 25%. The coconut-based value-added products are desiccated coconut powder, coconut milk, coconut cream, coconut milk powder, coconut flour, coconut water concentrate, coconut jelly (Nata-de-coco), coconut vinegar, virgin coconut oil, coconut chips, coconut pickle, coconut ice cream, neera and neera based value added products such as syrup, squash, honey, jaggery, candy and sugar (Chowdappa et al., 2017).

Botanical Name: Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora

Family: Rubiaceae

Chromosome No: 44, 22

Place of Origin: Africa

Common Name: Coffee

8.1 Introduction

Coffee is widespread throughout the tropics with more than 70 species. All cultivated species originate from Africa. Economically important today is Coffea arabica (Arabica, 64 % of world production) and Coffea canephora, (Robusta, 35 %). It is cultivated worldwide on approximately 10.3 million hectares and represents the sole economic income for more than 25 million families. The crop is produced and exported by more than 60 nations and ranks as one of the top cash crops in developing countries with 3.19 lakh MT production per annum in India in 2018-19 from more than 459 thousand hectares crop area. The coffee plant is a fast-growing tropical bush tree, with two types of shoots: upright growing orthotropic main shoots (stem), and horizontally growing plagiotropic shoots (branches). Traditionally, coffee trees are cultivated only for the berries, which are processed using dry or wet techniques directly in the growing areas to the final raw product, green coffee; this serves as the basis for various coffee products. Both the coffee species tolerate shade and share quite similar growth requirements with various forest crops and trees, thus predisposing them to be grown in agro-forestry ecosystems.

1 Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis is the botanical name of

 a) Cabbage c) Cauliflower

 b) Knol-Khol d) None of these

 2 Cauliflower was introduced in India in 1822 by ________ from Garden, London.

 a) Dr. Jemson b) Dr. Kalloo

 c) Herbalist Dodens d) None of these

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Cowpea is a typical warm season crop adapted to tropics. It is grown both for its tender pod and dry seed that is used as pulse for culinary purposes. The pods are rich in protein, vitamin B and minerals. It is also used as a fodder and green manure crop. On dry weight basis the cowpea seeds contain 23.4 % protein, 1.8 % fat and 60.3 % carbohydrates. Most probable progenitor of cowpea is Vigna unguiculata var mensensis. It is grown as a catch crop that is drought tolerant and sensitive to water logging. Being a legume crop, cow pea fits well in different inter-cropping systems. It is mainly of two types. Asparagus bean/yard long bean/snake bean (Vigna sesquipedalis) has 30-90 cm long fleshy pod with elongated kidney shaped 8-12 mm long seeds. It is late maturing variety. While catjang bean (Vigna catjang) has 7-13 cm long pods with 5-6 mm kidney shaped seeds. Pulse type of cowpea is Vigna uniguiculata var radiate and dual-purpose cowpea is Vigna uniguiculata var cylindrica.

10.1 Introduction

Cowpea is a typical warm season crop adapted to tropics. It is grown both for its tender pod and dry seed that is used as pulse for culinary purposes. The pods are rich in protein, vitamin B and minerals. It is also used as a fodder and green manure crop. On dry weight basis the cowpea seeds contain 23.4 % protein, 1.8 % fat and 60.3 % carbohydrates. Most probable progenitor of cowpea is Vigna unguiculata var mensensis. It is grown as a catch crop that is drought tolerant and sensitive to water logging. Being a legume crop, cow pea fits well in different inter-cropping systems. It is mainly of two types. Asparagus bean/yard long bean/snake bean (Vigna sesquipedalis) has 30-90 cm long fleshy pod with elongated kidney shaped 8-12 mm long seeds. It is late maturing variety. While catjang bean (Vigna catjang) has 7-13 cm long pods with 5-6 mm kidney shaped seeds. Pulse type of cowpea is Vigna uniguiculata var radiate and dual-purpose cowpea is Vigna uniguiculata var cylindrica.

13.0 INTRODUCTION

Cucurbits belong to the family Cucurbitaceae, commonly known as the melon or gourd family. The term cucurbits was coined by Dr Bailey. From nutritional point of view, cucurbit seeds are valued for their high oil and protein contents. Seed proteins and methionine of cucurbits are higher than legumes. Vegetatively propagated cucurbits are pointed gourd, ivy gourd and chow-chow. Long day of 16 hours and high temperature result in maleness. Short day of 9 hours results in femaleness. They are widely distributed in the tropics and warm temperate regions of south, southeast and East Asia, Africa including Madagascar, and central and south America. Cucurbitaceae family is represented by about 117 genera and 825 species. The most common uses of cucurbits are as vegetables and fruits. They are valuable sources of vitamins and minerals. The important cucurbits that are cultivated commercially are cucumber, watermelon, musk melon, long melon, round melon, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, pumpkin, squash, snake gourd, pointed gourd, spine gourd, ivy gourd and chow-chow etc. Cucurbits are used as vegetable, salads, dessert and pickle, and for making of sweets.

Vegetable: Bitter gourd, ridge gourd and sponge gourd, round gourd, pointed gourd and pumpkin are used as vegetables. Immature fruits of musk melon are also cooked as vegetable only in some areas.

Salad: Excellent salad is made from cucumber and little gourd.

Dessert: Muskmelon, water melon and cucumber are used as desserts.

Pickle: Cucumber, little gourd and bitter gourd are used for making pickles.

Sweets: Pointed gourd and ash gourd are used for making sweets.

1 Which soil is most suitable for bottle gourd cultivation?

 a) Sandy loam soils. b) Clayey soil

 c) Clayey loam soil d) Silt loam soil

 2 The ideal pHof soil for growing bottle gourdis?

 a) 4-5 b) 8-9

 c) 3-4 d) 6-7

 3 What is the desirable soil temperature for good bottle gourd growth?

 a) 35-40°C b) 10-15°C

 c) 18°-22°C d) 40-45°C

15.1 Introduction

Curry leaf is an important perennial tree vegetable cum spice crop of India mostly used in South Indian culinary preparations for flavouring food stuff. It is an under exploited crop. The leaves have slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste and they retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying. Curry leaf is used in many of the Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions. It has many industrial values and medicinal uses. Its leaves, roots and bark are credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Leaves are reported to cure piles and allay heat of body. The green leaves are said to be eaten raw for treatment of dysentery. External application of pulped bark and root is reported to relive eruptions and bites of poisonous animals. An injection of toasted leaves is used to stop vomiting. The tribal people of India use its ground bark to rub on the bitten Part As a snake bite remedy. The powdered leaves are also used to aid in healing of fresh cuts. The dried curry leaf powder is also a good spice powder for use in the food stuff preparation and is exported. Fresh leaves on a steam distillation under high pressure yield 2.6 % (curry leaf oil) volatile oil which is used as fixative for heavy type of soap and perfume. Rectified leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong spicy odour and pungent clove like taste. A volatile oil, a crystalline glucoside ‘Koenigin’ from the leaves and ‘Murayam’ from the flowers are industrial products. Curry leaf is grown on large scale in West Bengal, Assam, Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is cultivated in Coimbatore, Salem and Tiruchirappalli districts of Tamil Nadu on a commercial scale.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Curry leaf is an important perennial tree vegetable cum spice crop of India mostly used in South Indian culinary preparations for flavouring food stuff. It is an underexploited crop. The leaves have slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste and they retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying. Curry leaf is used in many of the Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions. It has many industrial values and medicinal uses. Its leaves, roots and bark are credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Leaves are reported to cure piles and allay heat of body. The green leaves are said to be eaten raw for treatment of dysentery. External application of pulped bark and root is reported to relive eruptions and bites of poisonous animals. An injection of toasted leaves is used to stop vomiting. The tribal people of India use its ground bark to rub on the bitten Part As a snake bite remedy. The powdered leaves are also used to aid in healing of fresh cuts. The dried curry leaf powder is also a good spice powder for use in the food stuff preparation and is exported. Fresh leaves on a steam distillation under high pressure yield 2.6 % (curry leaf oil) volatile oil which is used as fixative for heavy type of soap and perfume. Rectified leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong spicy odour and pungent clove like taste. A volatile oil, a crystalline glucoside ‘Koenigin’ from the leaves and ‘Murayam’ from the flowers are industrial products. Curry leaf is grown on large scale in West Bengal, Assam, Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is cultivated in Coimbatore, Salem and Tiruchirappalli districts of Tamil Nadu on a commercial scale.

Botanical Name: Phoenix dactylifera L.

Family: Arecaceae

Chromosome No: 2n = 36

Place of Origin: Countries around Persian Gulf

10.1 Introduction

Date palm is a nutritive fruit rich in sugar and iron and predominantly seen in desert oasis. It is the main fruit crop in arid and semiarid regions, particularly in the arid regions of western Asia and North Africa. The palm tree is well adapted to desert environments that are characterized by extreme temperatures and water shortage. Beyond the arid climates, date palm can also be grown in many other countries for food or as an ornamental plant including the continents of Americas, Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The majority of date palm growing areas are located in developing or underdeveloped countries where dates are considered the primary food crop, thus playing a major role in the nutritional status of these communities. By-products from date palm are used in building structures, animal feed, and also in several items such as baskets and ropes. The date palm tree has been in cultivation since 2400 BC. It is one of the oldest cultivated fruit trees on earth. India is the leading importer of dates. According to FAO statistics, in 2011 India was the largest world importer of dates (256,295 mt) and its neighbour Pakistan, in 2012, was the world’s sixth largest producer (600,000 mt). The major date palm growing areas in India are Kutch (Gujarat), Rajasthan and certain parts of the Punjab, as well as Tamil Nadu state to some extent. In Kutch, there are more than 2 million date palms, the majority of them grown from seeds and offshoots, providing a huge biodiversity for experimentation and improvement of products. Efforts by the Indian government in the last decade have resulted in an increase of date palm cultivation from 8,973 to 16,000 ha and establishment of a prominent effort in Rajasthan (Shah, 2014).

12.1 INTRODUCTION

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legume vegetables grown for its tender green pods for fresh consumption, processing and dry seeds. The pods are slender, 10-25 cm long, straight or slightly curved with prominent beak. Seeds are kidney shaped, elongated and white, red, purple or blackish in colour or mottled. The vegetable is in great demand in cities and is grown both commercially and in home gardens. Its major area is confined to hills, where it is grown for green pods. Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are the main states where it is being cultivated on large scale. Dry bean seeds are an excellent source of cheap protein and many cultivars contain 22-23 % protein. Hundred grams of edible fresh pods contain 91.4 % water, 1.7 % protein, 0.1 % fat, 0.5 % mineral matters, 4.5 % carbohydrates, 50 mg Ca, 28 mg P and 1.7 mg Fe. Its 100 g dry seeds contain 9.6 % water, 24.9 % protein, 0.8 % fat, 3.2 % mineral matters, 60.1 % carbohydrates, 60 mg Ca, 433 mg P and 2.4 mg Fe. In India, it is mostly grown for fresh consumption, while in USA it is grown for processing in large quantities. Dried beans are rich in protein and closely compared with meat. Phaseolus oborigineus is the progenitor of French bean. They are capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of bacteria found in the nodules on the roots of the plants. Four cultivated species are seen under the genus Phaseolus, i.e., Phaseolus vulgaris—common red kidney bean, Phaseolus coccineus—scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus lanatus— Lima bean, Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius—Moth bean or Tapery bean. All the species are self-pollinated except lima bean which is often cross-pollinated and Phaseolus coccineus is generally cross-pollinated and long day plant.

12.1 Introduction

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legume vegetables grown for its tender green pods for fresh consumption, processing and dry seeds. The pods are slender, 10-25 cm long, straight or slightly curved with prominent beak. Seeds are kidney shaped, elongated and white, red, purple or blackish in colour or mottled. The vegetable is in great demand in cities and is grown both commercially and in home gardens. Its major area is confined to hills, where it is grown for green pods. Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are the main states where it is being cultivated on large scale. Dry bean seeds are an excellent source of cheap protein and many cultivars contain 22-23 % protein. Hundred grams of edible fresh pods contain 91.4 % water, 1.7 % protein, 0.1 % fat, 0.5 % mineral matters, 4.5 % carbohydrates, 50 mg Ca, 28 mg P and 1.7 mg Fe. Its 100 g dry seeds contain 9.6 % water, 24.9 % protein, 0.8 % fat, 3.2 % mineral matters, 60.1 % carbohydrates, 60 mg Ca, 433 mg P and 2.4 mg Fe. In India, it is mostly grown for fresh consumption, while in USA it is grown for processing in large quantities. Dried beans are rich in protein and closely compared with meat. Phaseolus oborigineus is the progenitor of French bean. They are capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of bacteria found in the nodules on the roots of the plants. Four cultivated species are seen under the genus Phaseolus, i.e., Phaseolus vulgaris—common red kidney bean, Phaseolus coccineus—scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus lanatus— Lima bean, Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius— Moth bean or Tapery bean. All the species are self-pollinated except lima bean which is often cross-pollinated and Phaseolus coccineus is generally cross-pollinated and long day plant.

1. Introduction

There is intense commercial interest in dehydrated fruit and vegetable products especially mango powder, banana powder, orange powder, papaya cereal flakes to powder, tomato juice powder and other vegetable powders, which are in great demand for soups, biscuit type cookies supplemented with fruit powders (Ana Maria et al. 2009; Sunita and Chauhan 2008), pizza mixes and sauces. Natural fruit and vegetable powders are gaining lot of popularity in recent years as they are very easy to handle after production, require minimum storage space and they are attractive. Tamarind powder is developed from tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indica) (Manjunath et al. 1991) and recently cashew apple and guava residues from fruit juice industry were successfully converted into fruit powders and used at different levels of wheat flour substitution for cookies formulation (Ana Maria et al.2009) and fruit puree like papaya can be mixed with cereal flour to prepare slurry and after gelatinization, the slurry can be useful for preparing drum dried flakes and powder (Sunita and Chauhan 2008). Tropical fruits are exotic in flavor but their juices and purees are seldom available in dehydrated powder (James, 1971). Citrus juice concentrates were produced during world war II in powdered form by using spray, drum, vacuum-puff, and freeze drying (USDA, 1962). The preservation of fruits and vegetables by dehydration offers a unique method, which may be considered as an alternative low cost preservation technique. A shift from fresh to more and more processed foods with significant value addition is bound to occur sooner or later considering the socio-economic changes taking place in the country and the rapid integration of Indian economy with global system. Most popular brands are found in the “ready to consume” food sector.

The practice of smoking the trees to induce off-season crops in mango is

A. Smudging      B. Bending

C. Ringing         D. Notching

    14.1 Dry land ecosystem of Jammu and Kashmir
Geographically, Jammu and Kashmir state is divided into various zones- the mountainous plain known as Kandi belt, hills including Shiwaliks ranges, mountains of Kashmir valley and Pir Panjal range, and Tibetan tract of ladakh and kargil. The maximum areas of Jammu division is existing in rainfed condition and are known as kandi belt or sub-mountane region which includes the lower shiwalik region. The soils of kandi belt are light to dark colored, well drained, severely eroded and with varying degree of stoniness. These soils are neutral to slightly alkaline nature, low organic matter and poor in fertility. In these areas, mango, guava, aonla, phalsa, citrus, bael, ber and jamun are commonly grown as all these fruit crops are survived under rainfed condition or require less irrigations. In these areas the normal rainfall is nearly 900-1000 mm with a high co-efficient of dissimilarity. The rainfall division patterns are especially erratic in time and space which leads to moisture stress situation. About 70 to 80 per cent the annual rainfall occurs during from July to September as a result of the South-West monsoon. April to June and October to November are the driest months and is scarcity of water. Therefore the farmers are suffering by growing the agricultural crops and they have tremendous scope for growing fruit crops. These crops are less water requiring as compared to agricultural crops. Therefore RRSS, Raya, SKUAST-Jammu was initiated since 2016 for systematic research work for collection of germplasm, conservation, evaluation and utilization of red flush guava strains for growers community (Anonymous, 2022).

11.1 INTRODUCTION

The term ‘Dolichos’ derived from Greek language means long pod and ‘lablab’, an Arabic term, means production of sound by dried seeds in the pods. In India, it is grown all over the country but compact large acreage for commercial production is uncommon. It is grown for whole pod. Fresh seeds and dry seeds are used as pulse grain. It is used as pod vegetable, feed and green manure crop. It is very popular in villages as well as cities where less area is available for cultivation. The young tender leaves are used in salads and the relatively old leaves are cooked as potherb like spinach. Its fresh green pods contain 86% moisture, 3.8% protein, 6.7% carbohydrate, 0.7% fat, 0.9% mineral matter, Vitamin A 312 IU. It is good source of Vitamin B, Vitamin C, proteins, minerals and dietary fibres. Trypsin inhibitor and several anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and phytates are present in mature and dark coloured seeds. On heating it is broken down into toxic cyanogenic glucoside which is soluble in boiling water. Therefore, it is necessary to boil the mature seeds in water before consumption. Sem is of two types.(A) Dolichos purpureus var. typicus (Graden Type) is with soft, edible pod wall having less fibre. (B) Dolichos purpureus var. lignosus(Field bean) that is grown for fresh dry seed as pulse, pod wall has high fibre content and has characteristic aroma. Hyacinth bean is a perennial herbaceous plant often grown as an annual and pole types are photosensitive.

11.1 Introduction

The term ‘Dolichos’ derived from Greek language means long pod and ‘lablab’, an Arabic term, means production of sound by dried seeds in the pods. In India, it is grown all over the country but compact large acreage for commercial production is uncommon. It is grown for whole pod. Fresh seeds and dry seeds are used as pulse grain. It is used as pod vegetable, feed and green manure crop. It is very popular in villages as well as cities where less area is available for cultivation. The young tender leaves are used in salads and the relatively old leaves are cooked as potherb like spinach. Its fresh green pods contain 86% moisture, 3.8% protein, 6.7% carbohydrate, 0.7% fat, 0.9% mineral matter, Vitamin A 312 IU. It is good source of Vitamin B, Vitamin C, proteins, minerals and dietary fibres. Trypsin inhibitor and several anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and phytates are present in mature and dark coloured seeds. On heating it is broken down into toxic cyanogenic glucoside which is soluble in boiling water. Therefore, it is necessary to boil the mature seeds in water before consumption. Sem is of two types.(A) Dolichos purpureus var. typicus (Graden Type) is with soft, edible pod wall having less fibre. (B) Dolichos purpureus var. lignosus(Field bean) that is grown for fresh dry seed as pulse, pod wall has high fibre content and has characteristic aroma. Hyacinth bean is a perennial herbaceous plant often grown as an annual and pole types are photosensitive.

1. The soils best suited for leafy vegetables are:

a) Clayey soils

c) Sandy soils

b) Well drained loamy soils

 d) Any type of soil 

2. How long does itgenerally take for leafy vegetables to grow?

a) 35-50 days after sowing

 b) 100-120 days after sowing  

c) 90-95 days after sowing

 d) 50-60 days after sowing   

1 Chromosome number of garden pea is 

 a) 2n=2x=14 a) 2n=2x=18

 c) 2n=2x=20 b) 2n=2x=22

2 Origin of French Bean  

 a) South America b) South Mexica

 c) Africa d) Europe

3 Pea is the  

 a) Cross-pollinated b) Often-cross pollinated

 c) Self-pollinated d) None of the above  

India is a natural reservoir of the several fruit species. The several less known fruit species, which have the potential for commercial exploitation, are yet to be utilized to their potential. An attention to the less known fruit would play a significant role in increasing the income, providing employment opportunities, uplifting of the poor, small and marginal farmers and the development of value added products. These fruits are well known for their medicinal and nutritive value. There is a great need to develop and popularize not only for their domestic market but also for their export. Some of the less known fruits are described here with respect to their cultivation technology.

Where is the Central Institute for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants situated at?

A. Srinagar        B. Bengaluru

C. Anand           D. Lucknow

Importance

Ajwain is an important seed spice and is also useful for its medicinal values. It is a traditional potential herb for curing many ailments in human and animals. It is usually used as a digestive aid, relieves abdominal discomfort due to indigestion and antiseptic. The seeds of ajwain is bitter, pungent and contain 2-4.4% brown coloured oil known as ajwain oil. The main component of this oil is Thymol, which is used as gastrointestinal ailment, lack of appetite and bronchial problems. Thymol is also used in toothpaste and perfumery (Joshi, 2000). Seeds are also used for curing abdominal pains, abdominal tumors and piles (Krishnamoorty and Madalgeri, 1999). In southern parts of India dry ajwain seeds are powdered and soaked in milk, which is then filtered and fed to babies as it relieves colic in babies. It can be used as digestive mixture in large animals.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

Drumstick is one of the most popular perennial tree vegetables in the south Indian households and known as miracle tree. This perennial vegetable survives for several years and goes on yielding vegetables without much care and attention, and is planted on the side of the kitchen garden without much interference with tillage operations of other annual crops. The fruits, leaves and flowers are used in culinary preparation. Immature fruits are cut into pieces and used in several culinary dishes. Fruits are rich in Vitamin C, carotene, Phosphorus and minerals like Mg, K, S, Cl etc. Tender leaves and flowers are comparable to that of Colocasia in vitamins and minerals. Drumstick leaves contain high amount of vitamin A (four times more than carrot), vitamin C (seven times more than orange), protein (5-10%), calcium (four times more than milk) and potassium (three times more than banana).The roots of the plant are used for seasoning pickles. Its roots are a good substitute for Horse Radish so called as Horse radish tree. It is highly valued for the distinct and appealing flavour for its tender fruits. They are rich source of protein, minerals and vitamins. Seeds contain an oil called ben or behen oil which has been much used for illumination, soap industry and highly priced for lubricating watches, computers, delicate machinery and so known as Ben oil tree. Seeds contain 38-40% of non-drying oil which is clear and odourless, that never becoming rancid. The oil contains high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid up to 67.8%. It is edible and useful in the manufacture of perfumes and hair dressing. The press cake remaining after oil extraction is high in saponin, not edible, but utilized as manure. The oil cake is a water coagulant and used for purifying effluent water. It is used as organic substitute for water purifying chemicals such as aluminium sulphate. Wood yields blue dye and coarse fibre. The plant is used for treatment of rheumatism and as cardiac and circulating system stimulants. It has fragile and cory stem. The trunk is gaining importance as a raw material for paper making. The gum of stem has medicinal properties. The leaves are usually tri-pinnate with elliptic leaflets. Seeds are trigonous with wings on angles. Flowers are produced on current seasons growth on large and erect panicles or monocladial cymes. Flowers are yellowish creamy white and sweet smelling. It is a cross-pollinated crop. Pollinator is carpenter bees, bumble bee, honey bee and flee beetle. Flowering mostly varies from place to place and is greatly influenced by rain, temperature, humidity, wind, soil moisture and soil temperature etc. Peak period of flowering in central parts of India and Kerala is December-January while in southern part it is February-March and July-August with maximum flowering in February-March. Fruits take 60 days for horticultural maturity during rainy season while 30 days in summer.

Botanical Name: Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

Family: Arecaceae / Palmae

Chromosome No: 32

Place of Origin: Guinea Coast of West Africa

Common Name: Oil Palm

4.1 Introduction

The cultivated oil palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq. is a native of West Africa and exists in wild, semi- wild and cultivated forms. It was introduced as an ornamental crop in 1860 and planted at National Botanical Garden, Kolkata. Research on oil palm in India started during 1960 with the establishment of a research station at Thodupuzha by the Department of Agriculture, Kerala with Dura and Tenera germplasm imported from Malaysia and Nigeria. National Research Centre (NRC) for oil palm is situated at Elur, Andhra Pradesh. Oil palm crop is one of the highest oil yielding crops among all perennial crops. It gives 4 to 6 tonnes of edible oil/ha from 3 to 25 years of its life span compared to less than one tonne of oil per ha from other cultivated oil yielding crops. This oil palm is considered as golden palm due to its high yielding capacity. Among the 10 major oilseeds, oil palm is accounted for 5.5% of global land use for cultivation, but produced 32.0% of global oils and fats output.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Okra is a remunerative vegetable crop for the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Its fresh fruits are important vegetable in India, Brazil, West Africa and many other countries. For year-round consumption sun dried (Africa, India), and frozen and sterilized (USA) fruits are processed from fresh fruits. Tender green fruits are cooked in curry and also used in soups. The root and stem are useful for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery. Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Turkey. Matured fruits and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry. Okra is rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other minerals. A 100g consumable unripe okra fruits contain 10.4g dry matter, 3,100 calorie energy, 1.8g protein, 90mg calcium, 1.0mg iron, 0.1mg carotene, 0.07mg thiamin, 0.08mg riboflavin, 0.08mg niacin and 18 mg vitamin C. The dry seeds contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein. The seed cake is also used as an animal feed. Okra has high iodine content and it has ability to control goiter. Ratoon cropping can also be done in okra.

Botanical Name: Borassus flabellifer L.

Family: Arecaceae

Chromosome No: 36

Place of Origin: Tropical region of Africa, Asia and New Guinea

5.1 Introduction

Palmyrah is a monocotyledon and perennial crop. The word “Borassus” was derived from a Greek word and it means the leathery covering of the fruit and “flabellifer”, means fan-bearer. The distinguishing characters of palm in this genus are their palmate, fanlike leaves and dioecious character, i.e., male and female flowers are borne on separate trees (sex ratio 1:1), allotetraploid (X= 8 or 9, n = 18), the male tree has a heteromorphic XY pair of chromosomes while the female has an XX pair (Sankaralingam et al., 1999). Next to coconut, palmyrah is the most abundant palm found in the world. Palmyrah thrives in arid conditions and is grown extensively in Tamil Nadu. Palakkad district of Kerala is popularly known as land of palmyra trees. Palmyra trees are known as the icon of this district and have a vast cultural, heritage and literary association.

Importance

It is one of the most valuable primary products in world trade, in many years second in value only to oil as a source of foreign exchange to producing countries. Its cultivation, processing, trading, transportation and marketing provide employment for hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Coffee is crucial to the economies and politics of many developing countries; for many of the world’s Least Developed Countries, exports of coffee account for more than 50 percent of their foreign exchange earnings. Coffee is a traded commodity on major futures and commodity exchanges, most importantly in London and New York.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Portulaca is an annual potherb, but may be perennial in the tropics. In many parts of the world, it is still regarded as a weed with nutritional potential. Its young stems and leaves are succulent and edible with a slightly acidic and salty taste. Stems are glabrous, f leshy, purplish-red to green, arising from a taproot, often prostrate, forming mats. It is described as a power food of the future because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties. It contains more omega-3 fatty acids (300 to 400 mg/100 g of fresh leaves) than any other leafy vegetable plant. Succulent leaves and stem also contain dietary minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and potassium, as well as vitamins A, C and E and some amount of vitamin B and carotenoids. It has been recommended as a cholesterol lowering agent and as a therapy for arteriosclerosis. Generally, roots and leaves contain more iron and manganese than stems. Due to oxalic acid and nitrate content, excessive consumption of purslane is not recommended. The cultivated form of Purslane, i.e., Portulaca oleracea (garden or green purslane) and Portulaca sativa (yellow leaves, less hardy than the green purslane but possessing the same qualities), is hexaploid. Purslane is a succulent and well-branched herb, leaves are spirally arranged, f lowers are yellow, stamens 7-10, style with arms, fruit ovoid, capsule, seeds numerous, tiny and black in colour.

16.1 Introduction

Portulaca is an annual potherb, but may be perennial in the tropics. In many parts of the world, it is still regarded as a weed with nutritional potential. Its young stems and leaves are succulent and edible with a slightly acidic and salty taste. Stems are glabrous, fleshy, purplish-red to green, arising from a taproot, often prostrate, forming mats. It is described as a power food of the future because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties. It contains more omega-3 fatty acids (300 to 400 mg/100 g of fresh leaves) than any other leafy vegetable plant. Succulent leaves and stem also contain dietary minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and potassium, as well as vitamins A, C and E and some amount of vitamin B and carotenoids. It has been recommended as a cholesterol lowering agent and as a therapy for arteriosclerosis. Generally, roots and leaves contain more iron and manganese than stems. Due to oxalic acid and nitrate content, excessive consumption of purslane is not recommended. The cultivated form of Purslane, i.e., Portulaca oleracea (garden or green purslane) and Portulaca sativa (yellow leaves, less hardy than the green purslane but possessing the same qualities), is hexaploid. Purslane is a succulent and well-branched herb, leaves are spirally arranged, flowers are yellow, stamens 7-10, style with arms, fruit ovoid, capsule, seeds numerous, tiny and black in colour.

1. What is the main negative impact of physiological disorders on root crops?

a) Deterioration of quality and visual characteristics

 b) Nutritional imbalance

 c) Decrease in yield

 d) None of these

2. Forking is a common physiological disorder of which root crop?

a) Radish

c) Beetroot

b) Carrot

 d) Turnip

19.1 INTRODUCTION

Roselle is a perennial shrub but grown as an annual. In the seventeenth century, the vegetable types were introduced to India and the United States of America. It is locally known as Mesta or Meshta in the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the important fibre crops, which stands next to jute in production. In India, mesta is grown in larger parts covering areas from Karnataka to Tripura including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Meghalaya. However, Andhra Pradesh has maximum area under mesta in the country. In many tropical regions, it is a popular vegetable, which is cultivated for its leaves, stems, seeds and calyces. Tender young leaves are eaten as a vegetable and the red calyces surrounding the fruit can be used to prepare non-alcoholic beverages and as colouring reagent for jelly, jam, and beverages. The stem is utilised for extraction of fibre. The plant stalks are used in making paper pulp, structural boards, as a blend for wood pulp and thatching huts. The leaves are a source of mucilage used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Culinary cultivars are many branched, bushy and generally 1-2 m tall.

19.2 CHOICE OF CULTIVARS

Roselle is cultivated as a vegetable as well as fibre crop. In the beginning the tender leaves, stems and calyces are consumed. In the later stage it is used for fibre. The details of cultivars developed by different institutes and State Agricultural Universities for various uses are given below

19.1 Introduction

Roselle is a perennial shrub but grown as an annual. In the seventeenth century, the vegetable types were introduced to India and the United States of America. It is locally known as Mesta or Meshta in the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the important fibre crops, which stands next to jute in production. In India, mesta is grown in larger parts covering areas from Karnataka to Tripura including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Meghalaya. However, Andhra Pradesh has maximum area under mesta in the country. In many tropical regions, it is a popular vegetable, which is cultivated for its leaves, stems, seeds and calyces. Tender young leaves are eaten as a vegetable and the red calyces surrounding the fruit can be used to prepare non-alcoholic beverages and as colouring reagent for jelly, jam, and beverages. The stem is utilised for extraction of fibre. The plant stalks are used in making paper pulp, structural boards, as a blend for wood pulp and thatching huts. The leaves are a source of mucilage used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Culinary cultivars are many branched, bushy and generally 1-2 m tall.

Botanical Name: Hevea brasiliensis

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Chromosome No: 2n =36

Place of Origin: Amazon basin in Brazil

Common Name: Rubber tree, Rubber plant, Para rubber tree

11.1 Introduction

Rubber is a fast-growing tropical tree and mainly grown for the production of latex. In 1495, Columbus was the first person to report about latex. The latex was used for rub out pencil marks and this gave the product name as rubber. The latex is used for production of various rubber products. The most important application of latex rubber was initially accomplished in the 1880s when the rubber was used for making motor cars tyres. When rubber is heated with sulphur, it retains the physical properties.

1 The best age for transplanting of brinjal seedlings is: 

 a) 4-5 weeksold b) 1-2 weeksold

 c) 8-9 weeksold d) 10-12 weeksold

2 The recommended seed rate of tomato is: 

 a) 100-200g/ha   b) 1-1.2 kg/ha 

 c) 500-600g/ha   d) 33-4 kg/ha 

3 The best time for sowing tomato is: 

 a) September to October b) Mid-March to April 

 c )  Mid-December to January d) August to September  

The solanaceous group of vegetables (tomato, eggplant, chili and bell peppers) generally take up large amounts of nutrients. The amount of nutrients they take up depends on the quantity of fruit and dry matter they produce, which in turn is influenced by a number of genetic and environmental variables. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) known as Tamatar in Hindi is one of the most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world ranking second in importance to potato in many countries. Tomato is widely grown in almost all parts of India and is adapted to wide range of soil and climate conditions. Tomato is consumed either as raw or cooked and is also very important crop for processing in the form of soups, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder. Tomato adds variety of colours and flavour to food.

Tomato is very well known for its nutritive value. Attractive red colour is due to lycopene pigment, pink and yellow colours are due to presence of anthocyanin and carotene pigments. Tomato is rich source of ascorbic acid, which varies from 15-31 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. Tomato also provides minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium. Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice is digestible, promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is one of the richest vegetables, which keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition.

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Sorrel is a perennial herb, which is found in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It is of two types such as Garden sorrel that is a native of Europe and south western Asia and French sorrel that is originated in the mountains of southern France and the southern and central regions of Europe and south-west Asia. The name sorrel is derived from the Germanic word, Sur and the old French word Surele, both meaning sour. It is primarily used as a culinary herb for its leaves, which are used in salads too. The leaf of this plant resembles that of spinach and have a lemony lettuce flavour and the plant is well known for strong acidity in Europe and the United States. Sorrel is a rich source of potassium, iron and vitamins A, B₁ and C. The flavour of sorrel leaves is mainly due to oxalic acid, which is harmless when consumed in small amount. Owing to high level of vitamin C content, it was rightly believed to protect against scurvy disease. It is a dioecious plant, that bears unisexual flowers, as the male and female flowers appear on different plants. When the plant flowers, they look very attractive and are often used as an ornamental plant.

18.2 CHOICE OF CULTIVARS

In India, it is not a common leafy vegetable and is grown on a limited scale, mostly in kitchen gardens. Even in Europe and other countries, different local strains are grown for both home gardening and commercial cultivation. Profusion is a cultivar, which mutated naturally in France and produces only leaves without forming seed, and hence, the plant always has fresh and ready to pick leaves.

18.1 Introduction

Sorrel is a perennial herb, which is found in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It is of two types such as Garden sorrel that is a native of Europe and south western Asia and French sorrel that is originated in the mountains of southern France and the southern and central regions of Europe and south-west Asia. The name sorrel is derived from the Germanic word, Sur and the old French word Surele, both meaning sour. It is primarily used as a culinary herb for its leaves, which are used in salads too. The leaf of this plant resembles that of spinach and have a lemony lettuce flavour and the plant is well known for strong acidity in Europe and the United States. Sorrel is a rich source of potassium, iron and vitamins A, B1 and C. The flavour of sorrel leaves is mainly due to oxalic acid, which is harmless when consumed in small amount. Owing to high level of vitamin C content, it was rightly believed to protect against scurvy disease. It is a dioecious plant, that bears unisexual flowers, as the male and female flowers appear on different plants. When the plant flowers, they look very attractive and are often used as an ornamental plant.

The products of the plants which are used as food adjuncts to add taste only is called

A. Spices                   B. Medicinal plants

C. Aromatic plants     D. Condiments

Importance

Ginger is a perennial herbaceous monocotyledon, usually grown as annual, and is known to human as spice as well as medicinal crop. The word Zingiber is thought to come from the Sanskrit word singabera meaning ‘shaped like a horn’. It probably got its name because the rhizomes look like deer’s antlers. It first appeared in the writings of Confucius in the 5^th century B.C.

The economic part is the underground rhizomes, which is pungent and aromatic. It is valued for its medicinal properties and is useful against gastritis, dyspepsia, cold and cough. It is widely used in food, beverages, confectionery, etc. Baby ginger or young ginger results from early harvesting and is a gourmet quality product with a tender, low-fiber texture and is mostly used for pickling. Rhizome contains proteins, fibre, starch, essential oil, Zingiberol, Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid, Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose. Most ginger varieties have about 3-6% crude fibre, 1.5-3.0% volatile oil and 4-10% oleoresin. The major pungent principle in ginger oleoresin is gingerol. Among the gingerols 6-gingerol, 8gingerol and 10-gingerol are very important in contributing the pungency. Gingerol (Hydroxy methoxy phenyl decanone) on storage gets converted to another compound called shogaol. The age of ginger oleoresin can be assessed based on the shogaol content. Chemically, gingerol is a relative of capsaicin, the compound that gives chilli its spiciness. Cooking ginger transforms gingerol into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.

Botanical Name: Camellia sinensis L.

Family: Theaceae

Chromosome No: 30

Place of Origin: China

Common Name: Tea

9.1 Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) of family Camelliaceae or Theaceae is the oldest and second most widely consumed beverage in the world following water. Tea is an evergreen plant that mainly grows in tropical and subtropical climates. India is world’s 2nd largest tea producer after China with production of 1.25 million tonnes in 2020. In India it is grown in an area of 6 lakh hectares, contributing one fourth of world total tea production annually. Interestingly, India is also the world’s largest consumer of the beverage and using nearly 30 percent of the world’s tea output. India stands third in terms of tea export after Kenya (including neighbouring African countries) and China. The total tea export was US$ 501.16 million in April 2020 to November 2020 and for November 2020 it was US$ 71.61 million.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Tomato is one of the most versatile vegetable with wide usage not only in Indian culinary but also in world cuisines. Despite botanically being a fruit, it is generally eaten and prepared like a vegetable. Tomato is producing a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and provides nutrition to the growing population. Sometimes, it is called poor man’s orange in India and Love of Apple in England. Tomato is one of the most important “protective foods” because of its special nutritive value. The100 g of edible portion of tomato contains 94.1 g of water,2.5 g of total sugar, 1.0 g of protein, 0.3 g of fat, 4.0 g of carbohydrates, 0.6 g of fibre, vitamin A (1100 I.U), vitamin B (0.20 mg), vitamin C (23 mg), malic acid (150 mg), citric acid (390 mg), oxalic acid (3.5 mg), potassium (268 mg), and phosphorus (27 mg). Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid. Tomatoes are the major dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has been linked to many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer. It is used for treating chronic dyspepsia, bronchitis, asthma and also used as a blood purifier. Tomato fruits contain 20-50 mg of lycopene/100 g fruit. Tomatine is a steroidal glycoalkaloid present in tomato. Tomatine content is higher in leaves and f lowers than fruits. Tomatine content is 300 mg/100 g in small hard tomato fruits whereas in large green tomato it is 150mg/100 g. There are various types of f lavouring compounds found in fruits, which enrich the taste;so, several processed items like paste, puree, syrup, juice, ketchup, drinks etc are prepared on large scale. Tomato fruit aroma is due to sulfonium. Tomato acidity is due to citric acid and pH of the tomato juice is 4.5.Tomato is very good appetizer and its soup is said to be a good remedy for patients suffering from constipation. Three f lesh colours are found in tomato, namely, red (lycopene pigment), yellow (carotenoid) and tangerine (prolycopene).Tomato seed oil (24%) is used for manufacture of margarine. About 33% of total tomato growing area is covered by F₁hybrids which is highest among the vegetables grown in India. A book entitled Tomato was written by Dr. G. Kallo in 1986.

1. Potato

Scientific name: Solanum tuberosum L.

Family: Solanaceae

Origin: South America

Chromosome No.: 2n = 4x = 48

Introduction

Potato is one of the four major food crops of the world and is also a very popular vegetable crop. It is extensively cultivated in China, Russian Federation, Ukarine, Poland, Ireland, Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, France, Spain, South America, India and USA. Potato was brought from Peru to Spain by the Spaniards in 1565 when it was widely grown in Spain and Italy. They were probably brought to England about 1586 by Sir Francis Drake. Potato was introduced in India in early 17^th century probably by the Portuguese. Now it is one of the principal cash crops of India.

Importance and use

• Potato is the fourth major food crops of the world after rice, wheat and maize.
• Being a major source of carbohydrate it is often used as a substitute for cereals.
• It is one of the major vegetable crops of the world and is grown in almost every country.
• In India, it is considered as a staple vegetable and used either alone or mixed with other vegetables.
• Potato is used as vegetable in various forms such as, boiled, mashed, baked, fried and cooked in sambar and different curries of vegetable, fish and meat.
• Potato is processed into different commercially used dehydrated, canned and fried products like, shredded potato, sliced potato, chips, flakes, French fries, finger chips, granules, disc, cubes, flour, etc.
• It is used for several industrial purposes such as production of starch, alcohol, dextrin, glucose, etc.
• Potato starch is a large grained starch and contains 25 % amylase and 73 % amylopectin and high phosphate content.

Potato

Potato, Solanum tuberosum L. under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No. 2n = 4x = 48) is the most important non-grain food crop in the world, ranking 3rd in terms of total production with over 381 million tonnes per year in (FAOSTAT, 2017), after rice and wheat. It is grown in 150 countries spread across both temperate and tropical regions and at elevations from sea level to 4,000 m. It is extensively cultivated in China, Russian Federation, Ukarine, Poland, Ireland, Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, France, Spain, South America, India and USA. Potato was brought from Peru to Spain by the Spaniards in 1565 when it was widely grown in Spain and Italy. They were probably brought to England in 1586 by Sir Francis Drake. Potato was introduced in India in early 17^th century probably by the Portuguese. Now it is one of the principal cash crops of India.

The crop

The subsection Potato is distinguished from all other subsections within the genus Solanum by “true potatoes whose tubers are borne on underground stolons, which are true stems, not roots”. The series tuberosa is characterised by “imparipinnate or simple leaves, forked peduncle, rotate to pentagonal corolla and round berries”.

The species S.tuberosum is characterised by “pedicel articulation placed in the middle third, short calyx lobes arranged regularly, leaves often slightly arched, leaflets always ovate to lanceolate, about twice as long as broad, tubers with well marked dormancy period”

Potato is an annual herbaceous plant and growth habit varies between and within species. The plant has a rosette or semi-rosette habit. The stem is erect in the early stage but becomes spreading and prostrate later on. The leaves are compound and alternate, irregularly odd pinnate. The tuber is an enlarged portion of an underground stem or stolon. Tuber eyes are the buds from which next season’s growth will emerge. Eyes are concentrated near the apical end of the tuber, with fewer near the stolon or basal end. Eye number and distribution are characteristic of the variety.

Potato is mainly propagated vegetatively by means of tubers and sometimes by botanical seeds, i.e., true potato seeds. Potato has a terminal inflorescence consisting of 1-30 (but usually 7-15) flowers, depending on the cultivar. The five petals give the open flower a star shape. A flower also has a pistil that generally protrudes above a cluster of five large, bright yellow anthers. The corolla colour varies from white to complex range of blue, red and purple. Flowers are self-pollinated but also cross pollination take place by insect. Seeds are produced in the fruit which is botanically called berry. Potato fruits, stems and leaves contain glycoalkaloids, the toxic compounds, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine.

India ranks ___________ in area and production of vegetables in the world.

A. First           B. Second

C. Third         D. Fourth

2.1 Soil and Climate

Pomegranate grows well in sandy-loam and well-drained soils having a pH of 7.5. It can also be grown on light soils. Quality and colour development in light soils is good but poor in heavy soils. It tolerates salinity up to 9.00 EC/mm and sodicity 6.78 ESP. Even it can be grown well in slightly saline soils as it is considered a saline-tolerant plant (Patil and Waghmare 1983; Rao and Khandelwal 2001; Ram Asrey et al., 2002). Accumulation of salts, in excess of 0.5% of the soil mass causes dying off of growing roots. Interestingly, application of Paclobutrazol (250 ppm) was reported to reduce salinity damage (Saeed 2005). The presence of water-soluble salts like sulphates and chlorides and ex- changeable sodium negatively affect root formation.

Abstract

India is one among the major fruit producing countries of the world and offers opportunities of women empowerment through quality fruit production, planting material generation and production of value added products. There is a great opportunity to increase and improve the production of tropical, subtropical, and temperate fruits. Underutilized fruits also have a huge potential waiting to be exploited. This will only be possible with a concerted effort by researchers and growers, especially women to improve quality and increase production based on consumer demand and export potential. Women play significant role in fruit production activities. Unfortunately their access to knowledge, technology, finance, information, and training is minimal which hampers productivity of fruit crops. The mode of female participation in agricultural production varies with the land owning status of farm households. Their roles range from managers to landless labourers. In all farm production, women’s average contribution is estimated at 55 percent to 66 percent of the total labour with percentages much higher in certain regions. About 48 percent of India’s self-employed farmers are women. Thus, rural India is witnessing a process of transition which could be described as feminization of agriculture particularly fruit crop cultivation and their post harvest management. Women play an active role in various production and postproduction activities of horticultural crops. The number of women engaged in horticulture has increased continuously in the past two-three decades due to various factors such as migration of men to urban areas in search of non-farm income, increase in the demand of labour force in construction and other sectors. The data on the women involved in horticulture sector are scanty however the involvement of women in various operations of cultivation and post harvest handling and storage is very high because of entrepreneurial nature of horticulture. There is need to adopt collective and SHG approach to take women contributions to socio-economic significance. Thus horticulture, especially the pre-harvest and post harvest management of fruit crops have considerable employment avenues for women and make horticulture an effective subject of women empowerment.

Previous Year Questions

1. Write down the constraints of fruit processing industry in India (10M, CSE 2023)

2. Enlist & Explain the issues & challenges in the growth of food processing industry in India (10M, CSE 2022)

3. Give a detailed account of constraints in sustaining the food-grain production in India. (10M, IFoS 2020)

4. What are the major constraints of food production in India (10 mark, CSE 2020)

5. Describe the food production constraints in Indian agricultural system. (15M, IFoS-2018)

6. Indicate the major constraints in food procurement and distribution. (10M, CSE 2017)

7. Discuss the procurement and processing constraints of food grain. (15M, IFoS-2017)