eChapters

Abstract

A transect was performed along the Chubut River (Patagonia) from the Atlantic towards the Andes measuring major water parameters of this drainage area. Samples were taken at different locations of the Chubut River, and also brooks several Andes lakes in the Chubut and Río Negro Provinces as well as from several Andes rivers and mountain creeks. For comparison, the Laguna Cacique Chiquichano in Trelew (Chubut) was investigated. Several physico-chemical parameters were determined (pH, oxygen, nitrogen compounds, conductivity, redox potential, water hardness and spectral transmission), as well as photosynthesis by means of PAM fluorimetry. Water toxicity was assessed with a bioassay based on toxicity-induced changes of the movement behavior of a flagellate.

Introduction

To meet the food needs of the burgeoning population, India will need to produce 300 million tonnes of food grains by 2020. At present more than 75% of the total food grains produced in the country are of rice and wheat. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers has contributed much to the remarkable increase in production of rice and wheat in India that has occurred during the past three decades. During the last half-decade or so while fertilizer N consumption is touching new heights, the production of both rice and wheat is showing a trend of plateauing.

Abstract

This chapter highlights the need of performance appraisal. It discusses various measures and methods of performance appraisal with respect to organizational goals. Performance counseling, when used as a part of performance appraisal is a strong motivational tool for the employees and results in organizational effectiveness. The issue has been discussed from the perspective of employer and employee

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500- E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents), and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Earling: The young lamb of one to two years’ age is called earling or yearling.

Ebullioscopic constant: The boiling point elevation is expressed by Dtb = Km, where m is molality of the solution and K is ebullioscopic constant. It is also called as molal boiling point elevation constant. The unit of an ebullioscopic constant is K Kg mol-1.

Management approaches to soil, including problems of soil degradation and low soil fertility, have recently undergone major changes. The earlier concept was to concentrate on achieving high levels of production from the more fertile areas, leaving the marginal lands for extensive use only. Steeply sloping and highly drought-prone areas were mostly left without any cultivation as production from these areas was hardly cost effective. Soil constraints were to be overcome by inputs like improved crop varieties, fertilizers, chemical control of pests and diseases, and the use of irrigation.

The approach of use of newly developed high yielding crop varieties, improved agronomic management practices, use of chemical fertilizers, efficient water management and timely plant protection measures has been successful in achieving large increases in crop productivity in recent years. On the other hand, continuous application of fertilizers at higher rates leads to environmental problems. Yield responses to fertilizers have declined because of soil physical degradation and micronutrient deficiencies. Above all, large numbers of poor farmers simply can neither afford high levels of fertilizers and other purchased inputs, nor do they have the capital to take on the risk involved in their use. Increasing the area under irrigation has also run into severe constraints in the form of limits to available freshwater resources.

Introduction

Tripura is situated between 22^º56 ‘to 24^º32’ N latitude and 91^º10’ to 92^º21’ E latitude with tropic of cancer passing through it. The total geographical area of state is about 10,491 Sq.Km of which 58.90 percent area is under forest cover. More than 75 percent of the population either directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. The small and marginal farmers contribute about 90 per cent of total farming community and the average size of land holding is 0.97 ha (1990-91) in comparison to 1.25 ha (1976-77), which is the lowest among the seven other North Eastern states.
 
The state weather is characterized by warm and humid subtropical climate with three distinct seasons viz., summer, monsoon and winter with three different cropping seasons like khariff, rabi, summer and jhum cultivation in forest during pre monsoon and late monsoon periods. This state has many rivers out of which the important ones are Juri, Deo, Manu, Dalai, Thowai, Haora, Mahari, Burigang and Gomati which are mainly seasonal. Tripura receives an average rainfall of 2065 mm.The monsoon breaks in May – June and continues for about 4.5-5.0 months.

Introduction

Climate change induces significant and long-lasting shifts in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to million years. It is believed to be the cause of long-term temperature changes, changes in rainfall patterns and volume, prolonged summer seasons, increasing sea levels, and increased frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and heat waves, etc.

Animals are intimately and inseparately associated with their physiological and chemical environments from conception until death. As a result, climate change has an impact on animals both directly and indirectly. Since, animals have had to alter their behavioural and physiological mechanisms in order to maintain homeostasis.

Climate change has emerged as a serious threat to the livestock industry. It reduces animal productivity by lowering growth, milk yield, meat production, egg production, wool production, reproductive performance, and health. About 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species would likely be at risk of extinction with an increase of 1.5 to 2.5°C, which will result in severe consequences for food and nutritional security in developing countries. This is why; measurements of meteorological variables are needed for effective scientific management of livestock and poultry to cope with the negative impacts of climate change while enhancing growth and productivity.

11.1 Introduction

Horticultural crops are grown by farmers with the aim of generating profit. For a business to prosper, it is crucial that its products are delivered to customers who are satisfied with their quality and value, and who will continue to purchase them. Therefore, growers must continually meet consumers’ demand for fresh greenhouse-grown items by utilizing all available technology and expertise in producing, harvesting, packaging, storing, transporting, and marketing their goods. The needs of the consumer should drive production.

Managing plant diseases is necessary to preserve the quantity and quality of food, feed, and fiber that producers worldwide produce. To avoid, lessen, or manage plant diseases, several strategies may be employed. Aside from using effective horticultural and agronomic techniques, growers frequently largely depend on chemical pesticides and fertilizers. The remarkable increases in crop productivity and quality over the past 100 years have been largely attributed to such agricultural inputs. However, fear-mongering by certain opponents of pesticides and environmental degradation from excessive and improper use of agrochemicals have prompted significant shifts in public perceptions toward pesticide usage in agriculture. Political pressure is present to remove the most dangerous chemicals from the market, and there are stringent limits on the use of chemical pesticides today. Furthermore, because of the potential scale at which such applications could need to be made, the proliferation of plant diseases in natural ecosystems may make the successful application of pesticides impossible. As a result, several researchers studying pest management have concentrated on creating substitutes for artificial chemicals in the management of diseases and pests. Biological controls are one type of alternative among them.

Introduction

Arid regions of the world are diverse in terms of climate, soils, vegetation, animals and life style and activities of people. The binding feature of all arid regions in the world is aridity. Of the total area of arid zones of the world, Africa, accounts for 46.1 % followed by Asia (35.5 %). Majority of rest 19.4 % of arid zones are spread over in Australia, North America (Mexico and Southern part of USA), and South America. The Indian arid zone covers around 12 % of country’s geographical area occupying 31.8 million ha of land of which major part is in northwestern India (28.57 Mha) and some in southern India (3.13 Mha). It covers parts of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan states of India (Table 1 and Fig. 1). The arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana together constitute Great Indian Desert, better known as Thar. As arid western Rajasthan accounts for 61% of hot arid region of country, therefore it is considered principle hot arid region. Major part of it occurs between Aravalli ranges on the east and southeast and Thal desert of Pakistan (Thal desert is simply the western extension of Thar, only name has been changed) which is spread up to Suleman Kithara ranges in extreme west.

Seafood has grown in consumption as it has become an important part of a diet. Simultaneously their safety is a rising concern for human health. However, seafood may contain harmful chemicals as well as biological agents that could pose health risks to consumers. Fishes are harvested from waters that are contaminated by varying amounts of industrial chemicals, heavy metals, pesticides and antibiotics. These contaminants may accumulate in fish at levels that can cause human health problems (e.g. carcinogenic and mutagenic effects).The seafood may also get contaminated with various pathogenic bacteria due to unhygienic handling practices, cross contamination of raw foods with cooked or ready-to eat foods, and lack of proper temperature control. Pathogenic bacteria can cause illness in human, either by infection or intoxication. Food borne infections are caused by swallowing live pathogens that grow within the body, usually in the intestinal tract. Intoxication is a condition caused by swallowing preformed toxins i.e. toxins produced by microorganisms in the food before it is eaten. Food can become contaminated at any point during production, distribution and preparation. Everyone along the production chain, from producer to consumer, has a role to ensure the safety of seafood.

11.1 Biomass

Globally, all agricultural countries have promoted the use of biomass sources for many household applications and biomass energy generation. Biomass is defined as the bio residue available from the sum of crop production, agricultural waste, vegetation, forestry waste and organic waste. Biomass is a renewable source of energy and contains a complex mixture of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. Various biomass resources are available in different parts of countries and are classified based on their availability. The broad classification of biomass energy is in three formats; residue of agricultural crops, energy plantations, and municipal and industrial waste. Agriculture residues are organic materials produced as the byproduct from processing and harvesting of agriculture crops. 

12.1 Introduction

It is important to note that growing crops in a greenhouse requires a significant f inancial and administrative commitment. In order to ensure profitability, firms need to consider both cash flow and profitability. An enterprise budget can help address profitability potential by itemizing costs incurred across a typical production cycle. On the other hand, a cash flow budget is used to analyze the cash inflows and outflows of the enterprise over a fixed period of time.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

Definition of Host Plant Resistance (HPR)
Those characters that enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.
or
Those heritable characteristics possessed by the plant which influence the ultimate degree of loss done by the disease.
or
The inherent ability of an organism (i.e., the crop plant) to resist or withstand the pathogen is called resistance
Classification of Resistance
Each plant species is affected by hundreds of kinds of pathogen. Frequently a single plant is attacked by hundreds of individuals of a pathogen. Yet, those plants survive which are resistant, adapting a number of mechanisms classified variously.
1. Based on existence
a. Preformed
When the resistance is already present in the plant even I the absence of the pathogen, it is known as preformed, axenic or passive

The relentless march of urbanization, coupled with the growing uncertainties of a changing climate, casts a long shadow over the water security of our cities. Unlike their rural counterparts, urban areas face a distinct and often amplified set of challenges when drought strikes. The intricate web of municipal water supply, the concentrated demands of industry and commerce, and the sheer density of population render urban centers particularly vulnerable to the cascading impacts of water scarcity. When the taps run dry or restrictions tighten, the repercussions extend far beyond parched lawns and wilted gardens, impacting public health, economic stability, and the very fabric of urban life This chapter serves as an entry point into the critical field of urban drought management. We will delve into the unique characteristics that distinguish urban droughts from their rural counterparts, highlighting the interconnectedness of water systems and the amplified socioeconomic consequences within city limits. We will explore the increasing frequency and intensity of these events, driven by both natural climate variability and

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America. The other two, Capsicum annuum and Capsicum fruitescens are commercially cultivated throughout the world. Capsicum annuum is the most commonly cultivated species and all green chillies in the market and most dry chillies belong to this group. Most of the small and highly pungent chillies belong to Capsicum fruitescens.

1. Ammonia Nitrogen by Distillation Method
Method I (For Animal Feeds)
Reagents
    1.    Mangnesium oxide (carbonate free)
    2.    Standard sodium hydroxide 0.25 N
    3.    Standard sulphuric acid 0.5 N
    4.    Methyl red indicator

Weigh accurately 2 to 4 g  of the prepared sample. Shake it with water and filter. Wash the residue thoroughly with water. Transfer the filtrate to the distillation flask and dilute to about 200 ml with water. Add about 5 g of the magnesium oxide, Connect the flask to the condenser by means of the connecting bulb tube and distill about 100 ml of liquid into the receiver containing standard sulphuric acid and methyl red indicator solution, Titrate the contents of the receiver with the standard sodium hydroxide solution. Carry out a blank determination using all reagents in the same quantities but without the material to be tested.

1. Cattle
2. Buffaloes
3. Sheep
4. Goat
5. Swine
6. Camel
7. Rabbit
8. Poultry

Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the branch of science concerned with the care and breeding of domestic animals such as cattle, hogs, goat, sheep and horses.

India supports nearly 20% of the world livestock and 16.8% human population with a land area of only 2.3%. India leads in cattle and buffalo population and has world’s second largest goat and third largest sheep population. As per the 19^th Livestock census (2012) cattle (191 millions), buffalo (109 m), Sheep (65 m), goats (135 m), pigs (10.29m), camels (0.4 m) and poultry (729.2 m) population was reported in India. The total livestock population has decreased by about 3.33% over the previous census. India’s milk production increased from 43 million tonnes in 1983 to 155.5 million tonnes in 2015-16 (annual growth of 6.27%) and stands first in milk production in world.. The egg production is around 82.93 billion during 2015-16. The per capita availability is around 66 eggs per annum. The poultry meat production is estimated to be 3.26 million tonnes. Wool production (43.6 million Kgs) and meat production is 7.0 million tonnes in 2015-16.

Southern Leaf Blight

Helminthosporium maydis (Syn: H. turcicum)

Economic Importance

• The first epidemics of the Southern corn leaf blight also known as Maydis leaf blight took place in the USA in 1970.
• A highly virulent strain called Race T appeared on maize hybrids with Texas male sterile cytoplasm.
• The disease development was related to the growing of maize with T-cytoplasm on large areas.
• Since 1990 the use of cultivars with T male sterile cytoplasm has been forbidden in selection.
• Presently, the cultivars with M and C types of sterility are used.