eChapters

Abstract

The increase incidence of plant diseases have created challenging troubles in commercial agriculture and posed economical threats to both conventional and organic farming systems. To combat these problems there has been indiscriminate use of the synthetic chemicals that created different types of environmental and toxicological problems. Therefore attention has been directed towards exploitation of plant products or phytoextracts as novel chemotherapeutants in plant protection. Numerous botanical pesticides have been used globally and more has been discovered in due course of time. Pyrethroids, neem, etc are well established commercially as botanical pesticides and recently some essential oils of higher plants have also been used as antimicrobials as they are safe and widely accepted by the consumers. Use of phytoextracts may thus offer a new source of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral agents against microorganisms. Botanical pesticides are best fitting for organic food production in industrialized countries and can plays greater role in the production and post-harvest protection of food products in developing countries.

Principal Scientist and Head (I/C), Division of Social Sciences and Training Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bengaluru, Karnataka

Team Building

The effectiveness of the organization will depend on the extent to which the individuals and groups work as teams. People vary in their need to belong to teams. Some people are loners, while to others it gives them satisfaction to be a part of the team. However, the demands of an organization are such people have to work as teams to get the work done and achieve set goals and objectives. When work together, they use two types of skills-task and process. Since process influences, often critically, task results it follows that people need to develop both sorts of skills, and to be aware of them in others. The operative and cooperative processes will have bearing on team building. In other words, the extent to which the people in a group are able to develop a common vision and method of work to be done will help groups of people to emerge as teams. 

A. Bhattacharya

6.1.    Macronutrients (Primary)
    
6.2.    Macronutrients (Secondary and Tertiary)
    
6.3.    Micronutrients
    
6.4.    Inter-relationships Between Nutrient Elements
    
    6.4.1.    Synergism
    6.4.2.    Antagonism
    
6.5.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Macronutrients
    
    6.5.1.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Secondary Nutrients
    6.5.2.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Micronutrients
    
6.6.    Nutrient Deficiency
    
6.7.    Role of Mineral Nutrition Against Environmental Stress
    
6.8.    Role of Mineral Nutrition Against Drought Stress
    
6.9.    Role of Potassium in Abiotic Stress Resistance
    
    6.9.1.    Potassium and Drought Stress
    6.9.2.    Cell Elongation and Cell Membrane Stability
    6.9.3.    Aquaporins and Water Uptake
    6.9.4.    Osmotic Adjustment
    6.9.5.    Stomatal Regulation
    6.9.6.    Detoxification of Reactive Oxygen Species
    6.9.7.    Potassium and Salt Stress
    6.9.8.    Potassium and Low-Temperature Stress
    6.9.9.    Potassium and Waterlogging Stress
    
6.10.    Partition of Photosynthates under Nutrient Deficiency
        
References

Pulses belongs to the family Fabaceae (earlier known as leguminosae) comprises more than 600 genera and about 18,000 species of cultivated plants. It is the second largest family after Poaceae (earlier known as Gramineae), in terms of food and vegetable protein source and of fodder. The sub-family Papilionoideae consist of 480 genera and about 12,000 species, of which only a few species are cultivated for human nutrition. Endowed with excellent food and fodder qualities, these crops also restore soil fertility by scavenging atmospheric nitrogen, adding organic matter, enhancing phosphorous availability and improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil (Graham and Vance, 2003; Dita et al., 2006).

The word ‘pulse’ is derived from latin word ‘puls’ meaning pottage i.e. seeds used to make porridge or thick soup. Pulses or grain legumes in general are indispensible source of supplementary proteins to daily vegetarian diets (Table 1) these are regarded as “poor man’s meat”. Pulse proteins are chiefly globulins and contain low concentrations of sulphur containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine, but higher concentration of lysine than cereals, pulses provide a perfect mix of essential amino acids with high biological value and also contain higher calcium and iron than cereals.

A. Bhattacharya
1.1.    Specific and Unspecific Reactions to Stress

Plants are exposed to a wide range of environmental stresses and have to adapt physiologically to these as the local environment changes. Unfavorable soil properties, fertility imbalances, moisture extremes, temperature extremes, chemical toxicity, physical injuries, and other problems are some of the most discussed examples of abiotic disorders that can hamper plant growth which ultimately lead to death of the plants under extreme conditions. Furthermore, many of these abiotic stresses can predispose plants to diseases caused by infectious microbes. These stresses in plants also lead to a series of physiological, biochemical and molecular changes. Impact of biotic stresses on agricultural plants such as wheat, rice, maize, groundnut and many others have been top listed area of interest for researchers but until now, ornamental plants have not been a major object of such studies even though these plants constitute a major part of horticultural production and play an important role in everyday human life.
 
Ornamental plants are an integral part of the urban public places and private gardens. However, these plants are highly sensitive to abiotic stresses, which are known as the most harmful factor concerning the growth and development of these plants. Plant stress implies some adverse effect on the physiology of a plant induced upon a sudden transition from some optimal environmental condition.

A. Bhattacharya
    
8.1.    Glycolysis in Plants
    
    8.1.1.    Oxidative Decarboxylation of Pyruvate
    
8.2.    Citric Acid Cycle
    
8.3.    Oxidative Phosphorylation
    
    8.3.1.    Efficiency of ATP Production
    
8.4.    Photorespiration
    
8.5.    Effect of Abiotic Stresses 
    
8.6.    Effect of Drought on Respiration
    
8.7.    Effect of Waterlogging on Respiration
    
    8.7.1.    Plant Metabolism and Energetic Alteration Under 
        Waterlogging
    
8.8.    Effect of Low Oxygen on Respiration
    
8.9.    Effect of Higher Day and Night Temperature on Respiration
    
8.10.    Respiration Under Low Temperature Stress
    
8.11.    Effect of Salt Stress on Respiration
    
    8.11.1.    Reactive Oxygen Species
    8.11.2.    Physiological and Biochemical Processes
    
8.12.    Effect of High CO2 Concentration on Respiration
        
References

Introduction

Much of the world’s agricultural biodiversity is found in environments marginal for agricultural production. It is in such environments where management of high levels of diversity can become a central part of the livelihood management strategies of farmers and the survival of their communities. Abiotic stress can be termed as the negative impact of environmental factors on the organisms in a specific situation. It is a natural phenomenon that occurs in multiples and interdependent, and its impact varies across the sectors of agriculture. Abiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants by more than 50%. Drought and salinity are becoming particularly widespread in many regions, and may cause serious salinization of more than 50% of all arable lands by the year 2050 (Wang  2003). Environmental stresses such as erratic and insufficient rainfall, extreme temperatures, salinity, alkalinity, aluminium toxicity, acidity, stoniness and others limit yield and productivity of many cultivated crop plants. Not only are such problems serious today, it seems they are inevitably worsening.

Abstract: Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del is an important multipurpose tree of traditional agroforestry system in the central India. The present chapter reports influence of tree canopy positions, i.e. mid canopy, canopy edge and canopy gap, of Acacia nilotica (12-yr) on texture, organic C, total and mineral N and P and soil pH, in different depths of soils, on productivity of rice during rainy and wheat during winter season. It also reports how residual nitrogen under the tree influence yield of rice following its felling after completion of rotation cycle. Sand particles are found to decline by 10% and 9% whereas clay particles increase by 14% and 10% under mid canopy and canopy edge, respectively, than in open. Clay particles are not influenced by the canopy positions. Soil organic C, total N, total P, mineral N (NO3- -N and NH4+- N) and P are greater under mid canopy and canopy edge positions than in open. Soil organic C and N pool sizes are maximum in 0-10 cm and decline with depths. Total and mineral P contents are nearly uniform across the depths. C/N ratio increases with soil depth. Despite greater nutrients pools under the tree, density, aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, aboveground biomass / belowground biomass ratio and yield of the rice decline by 27.5%, 27.5%, 19.1%, 14.8% and 24.9%, respectively. Like the rice, yield of wheat also declines under the tree. 

8.1. INTRODUCTION

Exploitation of heterosis through development of hybrid wheat is one of the most attractive options to increase wheat productivity. The efforts on developments of hybrid wheat started in early fifties (Kihara, 1951; Fukasawa, 1953) through cytoplasmic male sterility system (Livers and Heyne, 1968). Later, in seventies, research works from public as well as private sectors have shifted their efforts to the use of gametocide (chemically hybridizing agent-CHA), and a number of gametocides were tested in eighties. In wheat, heterosis is especially interesting for grain yield and for the resistance of plants to both parasites and climate risks (Rousset, 1986). With this advantage in mind, the first phase of hybrid wheat development started in the United States in 1975. Chronological events of wheat hybrid development have been given in Table 8.1. Subsequently, a number of hybrid wheat has been released in countries such as Argentina, France, and United States (Pickett, 1993).

Mammals are homeothermic, meaning that they have the ability to control their body temperature within a narrow range in an environment whose temperature may change over a wide range.

India is experiencing a phenomenal spurt in the growth of livestock and poultry sectors through various timely and quality measures scientifically over a few decades. Milk production rose by a large leap from about 17.0 million tones in 1950 to about nearly 100 million tones in 2005 standing first in the world for maximum quantum of milk production. From about a ‘naught’ during 1950, the commercial layers have increased to 220 millions in 2005 producing 4500 crores of eggs every yearranking 5th in the world. The meat production is absolutely fascinating with 20 million birds in 1960 to about 2100 million in 2005 (Table 10.1).

Increase in ambient temperature, drought, rainfall, desert, feed and fodder scarcity, water scarcity and other climatic stresses are very common to tropical climatic conditions. The animals living in tropical climate have to undergo some modification for their survival under such extreme conditions. Interestingly, higher percentage of livestock is found in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. These areas are rich in animal resources. There are several descriptive and non-descriptive breeds of bovine distributed in different agro-climatic conditions of India. They possess several traits which make them adaptive to such climatic conditions. Identifying those traits and propagation of such traits is beneficial in near future in respect of climate change scenario. Climate change is the major concern for the improvement and sustainability of livestock under tropical climatic conditions. The rising of temperature and humidity is one of the major threats to animal’s productive performance that leads to great economic losses. Upadhyay et al. (2009) estimated 2% loss of milk production due to thermal stress in India. It has also been expected that 3.2 million tons reduction by 2020 and more than 15 million tons by 2050. The decline in milk production reported to be higher in crossbreds (0.63%) followed by buffaloes (0.5%) and indigenous cattle (0.4%) (Upadhyay et al., 2009). 

The climatic changes and global warming may impact the economic viability of livestock production systems in a significant manner. The possible consequences of increased ambient temperature on the livestock include reduced feed intake, reduced weight gains, lower milk production and lower conception rates during summer periods. Though animals can, to some extent, adapt to higher temperatures with prolonged exposure, the production losses are likely to be exhibited in response to higher temperature events. However, potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not yet been thoroughly explored. Changes in availability and quality of fodder have also been identified as one of the major impacts of climate changes leading to lowered productivity of livestock species. Climate change could also affect the distribution of vector-borne livestock diseases. These changes occur as a result of shifts in the geographical ranges of ticks, mosquitoes, flies and other vectors.

Introduction

Spatial planning tools brings together multiple users of the earth to make informed and coordinated decisions about how to use of resources  and helps to organize, analyze and present information from a number of different sources.  Thus, viewing from single interest or multiple use viewpoints is enhanced and can make a very important contribution to environment. Use of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) tools has the capacity to bring together experts from a variety of disciplines to address complex spatial problems.

Introduction
Science and its development have had a great impact on the biological research. The main problem arises to understand and interpret the data which are the results of the higher dimensional research in the above mentioned field, and it is extremely difficult some times to give answers for complex and tedious biological questions generated through the large datasets. Parallel developments of statistical methods provide relaxation over these issues. The statistical method by bioinformatics presents many new and logical problems for researchers, scientists, and scholars related to these communities. Thus the knowledge of statistical concepts and techniques are prime important in this chain. The effort is made to cover stochastic theory, finite Markov chains in learning models to diffusion processes in population genetics, advanced statistical methods with Hidden Markov model and provide some literature on Bayesian computation like MCMC and their resources. Fortunately the applied aspect of probability theory and theory of stochastic processes seem to have been extensively used in the research and development level of biological field but the lacking of required material is a very problematic aspect in the system with proper and systematic ways.

All living organisms need to reproduce in order to maintain their species and improve the economics of animal husbandry. Since the beginning of time, different methods of successful reproduction have been created, including artificial insemination and in vitro fertilization. To shield sperm from damaging elements like freezing, osmotic shock, oxidative stress, and cell damage by ice crystals, semen extenders were developed. Semen extenders maintain sperm’s characteristics, such as its morphology, motility, and viability as well as its membrane, acrosomal, and DNA integrity. To improve semen quality for fertilization, semen extenders must offer a suitable pH, adenosine triphosphate, anti-cooling and anti-freeze shock, and antioxidant activity. As a result, this compilation of research offers exact information on various semen extenders, preservation mechanisms, and crucial semen extender additions in goats. By incorporating various types of additives in semen extenders for cryopreservation, significant improvement is reported in post thaw sperm quality in terms of increased % motility, viability, PMAI, MMP and reduced DNA fragmentation, capacitation like changes reflected by less CTC pattern B and AR, Tyrosine Phosphorylated pattern A, E and AE.

The greenhouse effect is thought to be due to the absorption of solar infrared (IR) radiation by gases and the earth’s surfaces, which, as a result, is heated and then reemit IR radiation at low frequency with a high absorptive power. In fact greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are essential for maintaining life on earth, as without them the planet would be permanently frozen because all of the incoming heat from the sun would be radiated back into space by the earth’s surface (Moss, 1993). The threshold concentration of these gases at which their greenhouse effect would be minimized is not known, but it is accepted that their concentrations in the atmosphere should not be allowed to continue to rise. In recent years, there has been an increase in public concern over environmental damage originating from animal feeding operations.

Introduction

The proteome is often described as the set of all expressed proteins in a cell, tissue or organism. It is the systematic analysis of cellular proteins, that is, their identity, quantity and function. One advantage of proteomics over transcriptome is that mRNA represents an early stage of gene expression whereas the study at the proteome level describes the state of protein which is the final functional molecule of the cell. Thus, it gives a clear picture of the cell function that may not be concluded from mRNA study. In fact we can say that proteins are more than just information carriers so it gives more information with respect to only nucleic acid based studies.  Proteomics covers two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE), image analysis, mass spectrometry, amino acid sequencing, and bio-informatics to resolve comprehensively, to quantify, and to characterize proteins. Biomarker discovery as an important aspect of proteomics technology is highly appreciable when it comes to diseases. Today,  a better understanding of the disease mechanisms leading to discovery of new disease specific biomarkers are very much possible due to the sequencing of the human genome. It has accelerated the proteomic technologies for accepting the challenges so as to meet the diseased related investigations.

Introduction

Agriculture plays a crucial role in ensuring food security, accounting for a significant share of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture is not just about food production alone, since it is a complex multi-dimensional and multi-faceted sector which concerns the efficient use of the natural resources, productivity enhancement, and preservation of the ecosystems in a manner that can sustain the needs and improvements of human livelihoods (Devendra, 2012). It is also a most vulnerable sector to climate change which has been recognized as one of the most serious challenge for the world- its people, the environment and its economies. Increased incidence of abiotic stresses (drought, high & low temperature, salinity, submergence and oxidative stress) and biotic stresses (pest and diseases) have became major cause for stagnation of productivity in major crops (Grover et al., 2011). Abiotic stresses are directly correlated with the change in climate while biotic stresses are indirectly correlated as the pattern and incidence of disease varies with the variation in climatic condition. Also, crop productivity rely on extent and type of stress in the particular area.