eChapters

As already discussed in above chapter there are various physical, geographical and environmental constraints that are associated with the hill agriculture, thus the scope for` agricultural policies based on modern input-intensive agriculture is inhibited in the hilly areas resulting in the majority of the hill communities to either live on subsistence agriculture or immigrating to other parts of the country for employment. The policies that might give successful results for any other state in India situated in the plains, may not prove to be fruitful in this hilly state. As the livelihood of the weaker sections in the hill areas is absolutely dependent on natural resources, their devastation will make the process of inclusive growth unsustainable in the long run. For sustainable agriculture it is necessary that agriculture of hill can be b understood in the right way and it should include all the necessary interventions on those activities in which farmers are dependent to make a livelihood. 

Besides diversities and advantages in hills, the communities sustain largely on subsistence farming due to following constraints A.Natural constraints in hills There are large number of Inherent limitations in hill agriculture like, remote areas, vulnerability, marginality , eroded soil and short growing seasons. These Inherent constraints can be judged by the use of unsustainability indicators of hill agriculture which further showed increased in soil erosion rates from sloping farmlands , leaving of agricultural land due to decreasing soil fertility, appearance of stones and rocks on the cultivated lands, reduction in forest and grazing areas and more emphasis on monocropping that widened the cycle of inadequate food production and lead to food insecurity and increasing unemployment and frustration (Table 3) (Shrestha, 1992). These natural constraints are.

Hilly areas of India, especially the Himalayas and the Nilgiris which are rich in their forests areas and watersheds have played a major role in maintaining climatic and ecological balance in the country for a long time. These hills and mountain areas have specific characteristics which differs them from plains in diversity of habitats for flora and fauna, ethnic diversity, topography, elevation, physiographic feature land use systems and socio-economic conditions. Agro-biodiversity The hills are characterized by rich agrobiodiversity. These rich agro-diversity elements have evolved, over the years due to association with the communities distributed along the mountain and hill slopes.

Mountains play a vital role in sustaining about 10 per cent of the world population directly as they are the major source of water supply and majority of rivers originate from these ecosystems thus sustain the life of people residing in the plains. In India hill and mountainous areas are vastly distributed all over the country with the major mountain ranges in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The Himalayas are extending in 2500 km length and 250 to 400 km breadth (Khanday et al. 2004). They are further classified in three major categories i.e Western Himalayas (including Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh), Central Himalayas (including eight hill districts of Uttarakhand), North Eastern Himalayas (including Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, hill areas of Assam and Darjeeling district of West Bengal). Whereas Western Ghats also known as Sahyadri including border of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu .

Introduction Potato, scientifically known as Solanum tuberosum, is a starchy tuberous crop that belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is one of the most widely consumed and important food crops worldwide. Potatoes are native to the Andes region of South America and have been cultivated for thousands of years. They have since become a staple food in many countries and have significant cultural and economic importance. Potatoes are known for their versatility, as they can be prepared and cooked in various ways. They are typically harvested from underground stems called tubers, which come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colours. The most common varieties have brown or yellowish skin and white, yellow, or creamy flesh. However, there are also red, purple, and even blueskinned potatoes available. The cultivation of potatoes is widespread, with major potato-producing countries including China, India, Russia, the United States, and Germany. Potatoes are adaptable to different climates and can be grown in diverse environments. They are an important crop for food security and economic stability in many regions. Beyond their culinary significance, potatoes have also contributed to scientific advancements.

Introduction The “rhubarb and pie plant,” also known as Rheum rhaponticum L., is a member of the Polygonaceae family. Diploid (2n = 2x = 22), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 44), or hexaploid (2n = 6x = 66) rheum species are the three possible forms. The long, thick leafstalk, often called the petiole, is used to make pies and sauces. The rhubarb stalks’ colour may range from the typically recognized crimson red to pale pink with specks to plain light green. Rhubarb is a perennial plant that thrives in cold climates and is drought and winter tolerant. Edible petioles and leaves are the first springtime shoots to emerge. rhubarb was first cultivated in Italy and introduced to the continent in the year 1608. The earliest recorded use of rhubarb in the United States was in 1778, but by 1806 it had achieved broad acceptance. According to Lindley’s Treasury of Botany, the name comes from the Greek word rheo, meaning “to make one vomit,” because of the root’s laxative properties. It is a good source of carbohydrates (3.8g), protein (0.74 g), fibre (1.75 g) and fat (0.13g) and minerals like calcium (130 mg) and potassium (360 mg) per 100 grams of edible portion. There are numerous rhubarb cultivars contain bioactive substances such as flavonoids, anthraquinones, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, and saponins.

Introduction The Globe artichoke is a herbaceous perennial crop that is grown for its tender, edible, immature flower buds. It is botanically known as (Cynara scolymus L.) and having chromosome number 2n=2x=34. The globe artichoke belongs to the family Compositae, and it originates in the Mediterranean Basin, where it was most likely introduced as a crop in about the first century AD (Sonnante et al., 2007). The globe artichoke is presently grown as an annual crop or a perennial crop in different regions of the world. The increasing demand for globe artichokes as a source of pharmaceuticals and modern functional foods has created new challenges for producers, necessitating the concurrent development of new production hubs and the use of cutting-edge technology in established growing regions that can support the global market.

Introduction The asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) is an herbaceous perennial plant and known as Shatawar in Hindi. It is grown for tender succulent shoots known as ‘Spears’ which are used as vegetable and in the preparation of soup. Once the plant established, it continues to produce yield for 10-15 years. The juice obtained from spears contain a white crystalline substance called ‘Asparagine’ which has diuretic properties. Asparagus is a type of vegetable that is commonly enjoyed for its unique taste and nutritional benefits. Asparagus has a distinctive spear-like shape, with a green, purple, or white colour depending on the variety. Asparagus is a low-calorie (20 Kcal) vegetable that is rich in protein (2.2 g), vitamins, including vitamins B1 (0.143 g), Vitamin B2 (0.141 g), Vitamin C (5.6 g), Vitamin E (1.13 g) and Vitamin K (41.6 µg), as well as minerals including calcium (24 mg), iron (2.14 mg), potassium (202 mg), zinc (0.54 mg), sodium (2.0 mg) and magnesium (14 mg) per 100 g raw asparagus. It is also a good source of antioxidants, which help to protect the body against damage from free radicals. Asparagus can be cooked in a variety of ways, including boiling, steaming, roasting, or grilling. It is a popular ingredient in many dishes, such as salads, soups, pastas, and stir fries. Asparagus is also often served as a side dish, either on its own or with other vegetables.

Introduction The Asteraceae family includes Lactuca sativa, better known as lettuce, which is cultivated as a leafy vegetable. Due to its usage in the creation of salad, soup, and vegetable curries, this plant is well-known around the world. Additionally, this herb has fantastic therapeutic qualities. Because of its flavor and excellent nutritional content, lettuce is one of the most popular raw green leafy vegetables and is grown all over the world. It is thought to be a crucial source of phytonutrients. Significant physical and genetic differences define it. The Egyptians were the first people to plant this leafy crop. It is currently manufactured all over the world and used in forensic medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including as pain, inflammation and issues with the stomach, as well as urinary tract infections. Its pharmacological potential, which includes antibacterial, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and hypnotic actions, has been scientifically supported by a number of research.

Introduction Spinach, scientifically known as Spinacia oleracea, is a versatile leafy green vegetable that is widely consumed and enjoyed for its nutritional benefits and culinary uses. Believed to have originated in Persia (modern-day Iran), spinach has been cultivated and consumed for centuries in various regions of the world. It is highly regarded for its vibrant green leaves and is a popular ingredient in salads, soups, smoothies, and cooked dishes. Spinach is an annual plant, meaning it completes its life cycle within one year. It has an upright growth habit with an erect, branched stem that can reach a height of about 30-60 cm. Due to its delicate flavor and versatility, spinach is used in various culinary preparations. It can be consumed raw in salads or added to sandwiches for a fresh and nutritious crunch. Spinach is commonly cooked as well, either sautéed, steamed, or included in soups, stews, and stir-fries. Its mild taste makes it an adaptable ingredient that complements a wide range of dishes (Thind et al., 2021)

Introduction Palak (Beta vulgaris L. var. bengalensis), also known as spinach beet or perpetual spinach, Saag, Indian Spinach, beet leaf, Swiss chard and Palongpalang. is a leafy green vegetable that is closely related to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). And it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a popular and versatile vegetable known for its nutritious leaves and mild flavour. Palak shares similarities with both spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris). The leaves of palak are tender and similar in appearance to spinach leaves. They are dark green and have a slightly glossy texture. The flavour of palak is milder compared to spinach, with a pleasant earthy taste. This makes it a versatile ingredient that can be used in various culinary preparations. Palak is often grown as a cool-season vegetable, as it can tolerate cool temperatures better than spinach. It is appreciated for its ability to produce a continuous harvest of leaves over an extended period, hence the name “perpetual spinach.” This characteristic makes it a valuable addition to home gardens and commercial production.

Introduction The popular legume crop known as broad beans, or Vicia faba in scientific jargon, is valued for its diversity and nutritional content. Broad beans have a long history that dates back thousands of years, and they have been used extensively in many cuisines and agricultural practises all over the world. With the use of references from reputable sources, this introduction will discuss the traits, cultivation, and health benefits of broad beans. Annual plants in the Fabaceae family, broad beans have a cool growing season. They originate from the Mediterranean region, but due to their resilience to various climatic conditions, they have been grown in numerous locations across the world. With a height of up to one metre, the plants are renowned for their vigorous growth. Large, podded fruits with many seeds or beans are produced by broad bean plants. Broad bean cultivation is a rather simple process

Introduction Garden Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a small, round, green seed that is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is a legume, which means it is part of the same family as beans, lentils, and peanuts. Its chromosome number is 2n=14. Peas are typically eaten fresh, frozen, or canned, and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles. They are a good source of protein, fiber, various vitamins and minerals. Peas can be grown in a garden or farm and it is considered a staple food in many countries. Origin and Distribution Garden peas have a long history of cultivation and have been enjoyed as a food source for centuries. The exact origin of garden peas is believed to be in Central Asia. The distribution of garden peas expanded as they were introduced to different regions and adapted to various climates. They were brought to Europe during ancient times and became popular as a staple crop in many countries. The cultivation of garden peas also spread to Asia, Africa, and the Americas through the process of exploration and colonization. In modern times, garden peas are grown globally in both temperate and cool climates.

Introduction Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. repifera L.) is a root vegetable grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of India that is commonly grown for its edible root and leaves. The root is typically white or cream-colored with a slightly purple or pink top, and has a slightly sweet and earthy flavor. The leaves, which are also edible, have a slightly bitter taste and are typically used in soups, stews, and salads. Turnips are a coolseason crop and are typically planted in the spring or fall. They are hardy and can tolerate frost, making them a popular choice for fall and winter gardens. Turnips are a very nutritious vegetable, they are a good source of vitamin C, fiber, and potassium, as well as other minerals and vitamins. They are also low in calories and high in antioxidants. The root contains a compound called glucosinolate, which has been shown to have anti-cancer properties.

Introduction Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a very popular herbaceous biennial root vegetable mainly grown for its edible roots and leaves, it is commonly known as Chukander in Hindi, but also has different local names depending on the area, for instance, it is called Bita gacha in Bengali, Bita in Marathi, Beet in Punjab, Salada in Gujarati, Dumpamokka in Telugu, and Bit in Malayalam etc (Kumar, 2015). It belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae). The chromosome number of beetroot is 2n = 18. It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, and for pickling and canning. Origin and distribution The origin of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) can be traced back to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.

Introduction The botanical name of carrot is Raphanus sativus which belongs to the family Brassicaceae having haploid chromosome number of x = 9 and is believed to be originated from Europe and Asia. Radish is one of the most ancient and popular leaf cum root vegetables in both tropical and temperate regions. Radish probably originated in Europe and Asia. Radishes were extensively cultivated in Egypt and ancient records show that radishes were eaten before the pyramids were built. It had spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. The recent study has indicated that east of Mediterranean region, most probably China is the centre of origin of radish. Wild state of radish is not known. Previously it was believed to haveevolved from a common weed Raphanus raphanistrum Linn in Europe but now it is believed to have been evolved from more a variety of sources. As it is a short duration annual or biennial crop, it can be widely used in sequence cropping, companion cropping and intercropping in widely spaced crops. Roots are pink in colour due to presence of anthocyanin pigment.

Introduction Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a member of the Umbelliferae/Apiaceae family. Carrots is an important primitive cool season root vegetable crop cultivated in both tropical and temperate climatic conditions. Carrot is a significant winter root vegetable grown throughout India. Carrots are said to have originated in Afghanistan in western Asia, which is the principal source of variation. Carrots were grown in Asia Minor in the 10th and 11th centuries. It arrived in India from Persia in the 13th or 14th century. Its medicinal cultivation originated between 2000 and 3000 years ago. Carrots are a major root crop in European countries such as the United States, China, Japan, and India. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are the main carrot-growing states in India. During 2020-21, India produces 1885 thousand metric tonnes of carrot from 108 thousand hectares of carrot production. During 2020-21, Haryana ranked top in both area (19.83 thousand hectares) and production (337.43 thousand metric tonnes) of carrot in India (Anonymous, 2020). Carrot possesses antidiabetic, cholesterol and cardiovascular disease decreasing, anti-hypertensive, hepatoprotective, Reno-protective, and anti-inflammatory effects. Carrot roots are rich in carotene, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, niacin, and sugar.

Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

Introduction Garlic (Allium sativum L.) belongs to the monocotyledonous family Alliaceae or Amaryllidacea; Chromosome No. 2n=2x=16. In India, it is the second most extensively grown bulb crop after onion. According to several botanists (Candolle, 1985; Dscalov and Popov,1941; Kuznetsov, 1948 and Regel, 1975) garlic was cultivated and utilised by Mediterranean population since medieval time. Origin, History and Distribution Central Asia, particularly elevated highland of Pamir and Tian Shan is considered as the primary centre of origin of garlic (Vavilov, 1926), however Caucasus and North Africa is considered as the secondary centre of origin. Allium longicuspis is considered as the wild ancestor of garlic. The history of garlic usage dates back to 3000 B.C when it was used in Egyptians tombs likewise its first usage in modern era occurred during 10th century in England (Shinde and Sontakke, 1986) and its first introduction in North and South America was done by Spanish and Portugese settlers during fifteenth century; introduction and usage of garlic in other European and Asian countries occurred subsequently.

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.